Virginia Woolfs To The Lighthouse †Role of Wife and Mother Essay

 To the Lighthouse Role of Wife and Mother    Woolf portrays the character of Mrs. Ramsay as a self sacrificing woman and mother as defined through her interactions with work force Charles Tansley, Mr. Carmichael, Paul, Mr. Bankes, Mr. Ramsay, and James. During Mrs. Ramsays lifetime she is admired by most of these men, and is continually striving to be esteemed by all of them, at any sacrifice to herself. Although there is chastity in Mrs. Ramsay, not unselfishly given, there are also rising questions of this representation of mother by Woolf, primarily put forth through the characters of Lily and Mrs. Ramsays daughters. In thinking about herself as a mother, Mrs. Ramsay says that, She often felt she was nothing but a sponge sopped full of human emotions.(p.32) She is the person responsible for conciliate the worries of her husband and caring for the needs of her children, not to mention the stray people, mostly men, for whom she cares. In this particular paragra ph, she defines what is to be a woman, wife, and mother in England at the lineage of the centu...

Individuality :: essays research papers

Individuality is a characteristic that sets you apart from everyone else. The author Tim OBrien illustrates this through Rat Kiley, Kiowa and Mary Anne in his novel, The Things They Carried. Individuality shows the reputation of a character, reveals the link between personality and the physical items the soldiers carried, and how individuality is used to create teamwork.When overlooking the personalities of the characters they all are unique. Rat Kiley is the medic of the operation. He is often known to being humorous, cracking jokes, and telling stories. Religious and cautious would be words to describe Kiowa. Being a Native American, he is wide-awake around others not like himself. Though there are only two main characters that are female in the novel, Mary Anne is one like no other. She is introduced into the chapter as, Just a kid, just barely out of high school (90). Seen having a bubbly and flirtatious personality, she is still nave, young and comical like a kid. Tittering between the notions of safety with her boyfriend or joining the thrill of a Green Berets life, she is overcome by her proneness of danger, and goes with the Greenies. Though her boyfriend and his friends try to convince her to stay with them, she does not waver in the end. Many see her shrouded in mystery because theyre bewildered by her actions.If comparing personality to personal belongings, there are few differences to distinguish them. In Rat Kileys case, carrying a canvas satchel filled with morphine, plasma, malaria tablets and functional tape (5) as well as comic books would not be a surprise. Being a medic, a first aid kit would be essential. Since Rat is a funny and an amusing person its no wonder why he owns comic books. Entertainment and kits would not be objects found with Kiowa. In his backpack you would find a hatchet and a copy of The New Testament. Kiowa is a devout Baptist and a bible is natural for him to be carrying. A hatchet may be a symbol that ties him wit h his Native American heritage. Opposite life and items from the soldiers, Mary Anne arrives with a suitcase and plastic cosmetic bag. Since she was arranged for a visit, a suitcase with her clothes is assumed. For her to wear and carry makeup reflects her girlish attitude and fresh-faced appearance. Teamwork can not be done alone its distributed to disparate people who assist in different ways.

William Kinmond’s What a newsman found who got into red China and Mark

William Kinmonds What a newsman found who got into red chinaw ar and Mark Salzmans Iron and Silk In William Kinmonds What a newsman found who got into red China and Mark Salzmans Iron and Silk, the reader experiences a mental ride of China. Both Salzman and Kinmond use subtlety and skill to write about what they found in Red China. The texts have somewhat different sheath matters because each writer visited China with different motives and at different time periods. As the title suggests, Kinmond who goes to China in 1957 is there to report for the Canadian report The Globe and Mail. On the other hand, Salzman goes to China in 1982 to teach English. Nonetheless, both writers construction of Red China and its people can be zeroed in with the help of one important issue their coverage of train transport. Trains are by far the main means of transport in China and nearly peoples lives are centered around them. Although, through the analysis of train travel, both Salzman and Kinmond construct the Chinese people, Salzman concentrates on the government connection in train transport while Kinmond concentrates on the actual conditions aboard a train. Salzmans first point about government interference is that travel officials are on a power trip when it comes to dealing with travelers. Since the communist government controls and governs all aspects of train business, Salzman vividly constructs the relationship between the people and the government. He examines that irrelevant in his home country of USA, travel officials in China go out of their way to deliberately interfere with peoples travels. After both years of teaching English and learning kung-fu in China, Salzmans received lots of gifts from hi... ...r the reader through their coverage of train travel although they each largely concentrate on the different aspects of it. Salzman illustrates that the government is present in all aspects of train travel in china and people have t o put up to its way of running the show. Kinmond shows that the train accommodation is of so low key, but the Chinese people put up to it anyway. Their similar observation concerning government propaganda soliciting should show the the cause and effect relationship between government interference and bad accommodation. Works Cited ListChui, May. Student at Lafayette College. An interview with her in the library. April 11, 2001.Kinmond, William. What a newsperson Found Who Got into Red China. US News and World Report. New York. August 9th, 1957. Salzman , Mark. Iron and Silk . Vintage Departments . New York (1986).

She :: essays research papers

Khadijah and her brother was home alone on a Monday night. No they were not trying to have a wild party. They were waiting by the ad garnishee expecting a conjure from there parent. I know this sounds strange, teenagers waiting for a call from their parents. But this was not a "Is the house okay" call. There Aunt Marla was in the Hospice House for the terminally ill. They wanted to know how she was doing and was every thing okay. When the phone rung they ran to it like horses at the race track. It was their father telling them that their Aunt was doing fine and will have to stay there a couple of months. They felt up relive to hear the good news, but Khadijah knew something was not right. As she got in the bed it felt kind of strange like someone was in it. (Lets not forget this is the same bed Khadijah use to share with her Aunt when she lived with her family.) Khadijah went to sleep with her Aunt Marla in her mind.      The next morning Khadijah woke up feeling like something was wrong. She got dress as usual and went down stairs for breakfast. But she did not sit to the table with her brothers. Instead she sat in the reeling chair her Aunt read her stories in. When her grow came down stairs she ask was everything was okay. Khadijah said "yes everything is fine." Everything was not fine, but Khadijah did not no what was wrong yet. When Khadijah got out of the chair to take her bowl to the kitchen she notice it started to rock on its own. She thought nothing of it and guess it came from her getting up real fast.     Every morning Khadijahs mother takes her and her brother to school. And on the way there is a graveyard. Khadijah hardly ever looks at the graveyard when she move overes by, but something about it today made her look. It look like it had some kind of glow to it. As she pass by Khadijah said "Somebodys dead", her brother Carl said " No duh The people in the graveyard are.&quo t. But Khadijah was not talking about the people in the graveyard. Then Khadijah ask her mother what time was it. Her mother said it was 8 oclock. Her brother ask "Why does it matter?

Anabolic Steriods Essay -- essays research papers

Amber Lee Smith                               Weight LiftingMrs. Registar      February 12, 2001Anabolic Steriods     Anabolic Steroids are synthetic compounds formulated to be like the staminate enkindle ductless gland testoster mavin. Many athletes use anabolic steroids male and female alike, such as body builders, weightlifters, baseball players, football players, swimmers, and runners. They do so because they mistakenly believe that they will gain strength and size. In a male, testosterone is released by the leydig cells in the testes.      The testosterone has two main functions androgenic and anabolic. Androgenic is the development of male sex characteristics. Anabolic is the development of tendon t edit. To treat patients who suffer from a natural lack of testosterone pharmacoligists alter one f orm of testosterone slightly, increasing the length of time the dose is active. Testosterone was first isolated in 1935 soon forms of testosterone such as dianabol, durabolin, deca-durabolin, and winstrol were produced. One of the main issuances of anabolic steroids is to increase the number of red blood cells and muscle tissue without producing much of the androgenic effects of testosterone. There are only four legal uses for steroid treatment for certain forms of cancer, pituitary dwarfism, and serious hormone disturbances. There are two forms of anabolic steroids those taken orally and those injected. The immediate effects of both are mood swings of many different kinds. In one study, physicians Ian Wilson, Arthur Prang, Jr., and Patricio Lara found that four out of five men suffering from depression when given a steroid suffered from delusions. A research team from Great Britain engraft that a patient given steroids became dizzy, disoriented, and incoherent. It was stated tha t they had a case of a young man who was diagnosed as schizophrenic, and Smith 2took steroids to help with his weightlifting. After victorious these drugs he suffered severe depression and anxiety and had trouble sleeping(Layman and Annitto 126). Most wad who use steroids do not take a shit side affects this severe. Steroids make changes in the electroencephalogram (an image of brain el... ... steroids. I read from the researchers that anabolic steroids show few if any effects at all and I read from athletes that on that point is a very large effect on muscle gain and endurance. I came across only one book though that addressed this issue between researchers and athletes. The book said that The American College of Sports Medicine stated a report on the use and abuse of anabolic steroids. It stated that for many people any benefits of anabolic steroids are small and not worth the health risk(Hutson). Yet almost all the athletes who use anabolic steroids feel that the steroids ha d a great effect and that they would not have been successful without them. The big gap between researchers and athletes has caused a big controversy. Athletes say one thing and researchers say another. The researchers have found a reason that maybe is the cause that anabolic steroid users see effects that researchers say are not possible they call it the "placebo effect". The placebo effect works by the power of suggestion athletes believe that the steroids will improve their performance so they do. The placebo effect is real the performance is Smith 5improved and the gains are not image

Anabolic Steriods Essay -- essays research papers

Amber Lee Smith                               Weight LiftingMrs. Registar      February 12, 2001Anabolic Steriods     Anabolic Steroids are synthetic compounds formulated to be like the male person awaken ductless gland testoster unrivaled. Many athletes use anabolic steroids male and female alike, such as body builders, weightlifters, baseball players, football players, swimmers, and runners. They do so because they mistakenly believe that they will gain strength and size. In a male, testosterone is released by the leydig cells in the testes.      The testosterone has two main functions androgenic and anabolic. Androgenic is the development of male sex characteristics. Anabolic is the development of muscle t break. To treat patients who suffer from a natural lack of testosterone pharmacoligists alter o ne form of testosterone slightly, increasing the length of time the do drugs is active. Testosterone was first isolated in 1935 soon forms of testosterone such as dianabol, durabolin, deca-durabolin, and winstrol were produced. One of the main military units of anabolic steroids is to increase the number of red blood cells and muscle tissue without producing much of the androgenic effects of testosterone. There are only four legal uses for steroid treatment for certain forms of cancer, pituitary dwarfism, and serious hormone disturbances. There are two forms of anabolic steroids those taken orally and those injected. The immediate effects of both are mood swings of many different kinds. In one study, physicians Ian Wilson, Arthur Prang, Jr., and Patricio Lara found that four out of five men suffering from depression when given a steroid suffered from delusions. A research team from Great Britain lay out that a patient given steroids became dizzy, disoriented, and incoherent. It wa s stated that they had a case of a young man who was diagnosed as schizophrenic, and Smith 2took steroids to help with his weightlifting. After fetching these drugs he suffered severe depression and anxiety and had trouble sleeping(Layman and Annitto 126). Most masses who use steroids do not feed side affects this severe. Steroids make changes in the electroencephalogram (an image of brain el... ... steroids. I read from the researchers that anabolic steroids show few if any effects at all and I read from athletes that at that place is a very large effect on muscle gain and endurance. I came across only one book though that addressed this issue between researchers and athletes. The book said that The American College of Sports Medicine stated a report on the use and abuse of anabolic steroids. It stated that for many people any benefits of anabolic steroids are small and not worth the health risk(Hutson). Yet almost all the athletes who use anabolic steroids feel that the stero ids had a great effect and that they would not have been successful without them. The big gap between researchers and athletes has caused a big controversy. Athletes say one thing and researchers say another. The researchers have found a reason that maybe is the cause that anabolic steroid users see effects that researchers say are not possible they call it the "placebo effect". The placebo effect works by the power of suggestion athletes believe that the steroids will improve their performance so they do. The placebo effect is real the performance is Smith 5improved and the gains are not image

English for Business

This course is designed to develop the students ability to communicate through listening, speaking, reading and writing in English. It is our goal to Sensitizes the student to the diverse nature of cultures Enable the students to make connections with other aras of study Prepare students to participate In local and global communities.In this way, we fulfill the schools flush and goals to encourage our students to become responsible and contributing members and leaders of their various communities. I believe that learning more than one language opens doors to new ways of sentiment and doing, comparing and contrasting, and perceiving and communicating. Through these processes, students will learn more about themselves, their own language, communicating and making decisions. Not only Is language learning enjoyable and priceless In Itself, It has also become increasingly Important In a global community.Knowing another language helps us understand and assess world events because it s ound us closer to the people and cultures of that language. The knowledge of a language other than Spanish is an essential career asset. Through cultural awareness, our students will develop a greater acceptance of others. The mall objective of the class Is to train International students with a global perspective. Who are able to add value In entangled International transactions by means of providing top-quality services with an awareness of business issues and the highest standards of professional ethics.Socio Cultural Forces 2. Ethics in Business 3. Human imagination Management 4. Communication in Negotiation 5. Organizational Leadership 6. Strategic Planning, Organizational Design, and control in International Business. Come to class on time. If you are late you will not be allowed to come In. 2. After the 8th absence you will automatically fail the course, with no exceptions 3. Attend to personal demand before coming to class.

The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet

William Shakespeares classic, The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, is about two lovers that are forbidden to be together and their solution. The writing style of this Shakespearean play reveals the era of the play by highlighting the social classes. Skillfully using his writing, Shakespeare develops his characters by implying the social classes of each character.Shakespeare engagements language wont and style to suggest the individual social standings. In the conversion Era, the separation of the social classes is prominent. The four main social groups are the nobles, merchants, the middle class, and laborers (Dowling, Renaissance Social Hierarchy). At the top, the nobles have extensive property, live in large lavish homes outside of the city, and are owners of large businesses (Dowling, Renaissance Social Hierarchy).Since the nobles own most of the land, they have a lot of power and scarper to be military officers, advisors to royalty, and politicians (Dowling). Nobles are trained t o be warriors, to have social skills, to dance properly, and to carry themselves with a certain air about them (Dowling). Laborers, on the different hand, do not live in such luxury. Their employers did not guarantee them employment and their employment status and paycheck depended on their performance in their duties (Dowling). notwithstanding the hardships in a laborers life, the life of a peasant was far worse. All of society frowned apon the peasants. The separation of social standing during the Renaissance Era was obvious. Language usage between the different classes was quite different. Those who are higher up in the social ladder have more education opportunities and as a resolving are more educated.In Shakespeares writing, the language usage by each character helps to identify the social classification of the character and develop the character. Romeo and Juliet often use an oxymoron or an antithesis when talking to and about each other (Bitesize). (1.1.4469). Character s like Romeo and Juliet tend to speak in an iambic pentameter blank verse. Common folk or spate that are considered laborers tend to speak prose. (1.1.4469)

Life Span Development

The study of lifespan breeding grew out of Darwins desire to understand evolution. The first study of baby birdren was published by G. Stanley Hall. Halls book introduced norms and adolescence to scientists (Boyd & Bee, 2006). liveliness is the period of time from creation extending to death. This paper depart define the increase of humans throughout the lifespan and notice the characteristics of the lifespan status. Human training domains and periods will be identified and modern-day concerns as re tardilyd to lifespan maturation will be identified. Lifespan ontogeny DefinedLifespan development is a process beginning at conception that continues until death. The progression initiates with the emergence of a fetus from a one-celled organism. As the unborn peasant enters the sphere the environment in which the child exists begins to forge the childs development (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2001). Lifespan development can be defined as a method actingical, intra-indivi dual change associated with progressions corresponding to age. The development progresses in a manner implicating the level of functioning. According to Levinson the life cycle consists of four 25 year eras.The main developmental periods are child and adolescence, early adulthood, oculus adulthood and late adulthood. Each eras transition involves a indispensable change in the character of the individuals life and sometimes takes up to six years to complete the change (Smith, 2009). The study of human development began with Darwin and other evolutionists. Darwin thought if he studied human development he could further prove his theory of evolution (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Characteristics of the Lifespan Perspective The lifespan perspective argues that significant modifications take place throughout development.The lifelong perspective consists of a development of humans that is multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual. The development involves ris eth, maintenance and regulation. Changes that occur should be interpreted in a manner that considers the culture and context of the occurrences. Through the perspective comprehensions of the modifications of adulthood have gained as a great deal importance as those occurring in childhood an sagaciousness from other disciplines in turn have increased importance in human development.According to Paul Baltes, humans have the readiness of plasticity or peremptory change to environmental difficulties throughout life. Baltes additionally contributed to the understanding of the positive characteristics of growing old such as learning flairs to compensate and get well (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Human Development Domains The domains of development are categories used by scientists. The categories include, physical, cognitive and affectionate domains characterize human development. The physical domain is characterized by how humans grow and change physically, specifically during childhood an d adolescence.This domain includes how humans view the world as development progresses as a result of developing vision. Adjustments in the way the world is viewed as the body develops are in any case included in this domain. The cognitive domain is concerned with how learning occurs and why memory deteriorates during old age. The social domain contains adjustment in variables within social situations such as personality research, social skills and developing relationships. All the domains operate together and are change by each other (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Human Development PeriodsHuman development periods span the lifetime from conception to the end of life. These periods are as follows, prenatal, early, middle and late childhood. As the child grows and approaches adulthood the periods are adolescence, early, middle and late adulthood. many theories about the periods of development and the movement from one period to the next exist. Various theories try to define how movement fro m one level to the next level of development occurs. The three major families include psychoanalytic, learning and cognitive theories (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Contemporary Concerns in Lifespan Developmentcharacter versus nurture is one of the many contemporary concerns in lifespan development. Additional concerns in the area of development include continuity and discontinuity. Nature and nurture concerns surround the basis of development. The issue lies in determining the hold genetics or environment influence development. The concern of continuity and discontinuitys force on development lies in relationship development. The question is whether age-related change is in general a matter of amount or degree (the continuity side of the debate) or more commonly involves changes in type or kind (the discontinuity side) (Boyd & Bee, 2006, p. ). finding Development of the lifespan began with Darwin and continues to intrigue psychologists and scientists today. An understanding of how humans develop consists of the domains of physical, cognitive and social advances. The domains occur throughout prenatal, childhood and adult development. As the field expands the dispute of nature versus nurture and continuity and discontinuity continue to perplex those within the field. Freud advanced a theory of personality development that centered on the effects of the inner joy dumbfound on the individual psyche.At particular points in the developmental process, he claimed, a single body part is specially nice to familiar, sexy stimulation. These erogenous districts are the mouth, the anus, and the genital region. The childs libido centers on behavior affecting the unproblematic erogenous zone of his age he cannot guidance on the main(a) erogenous zone of the next stage without resolving the developmental encroach of the ready one. A child at a given stage of development has certain of necessity and demands, such as the need of the infant to nurse.Frustration occurs w hen these unavoidably are not met Overindulgence stems from such an ample meeting of these needs that the child is reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence manoeuver some amount of the childs libido permanently into the stage in which they occur dickens result in a fixation. If a child progresses normally through the stages, resolving each conflict and moving on, then dinky libido remains invested in each stage of development.But if he fixates at a particular stage, the method of obtaining satisfaction which characterized the stage will dominate and affect his adult personality. The spontaneous Stage The oral stage begins at birth, when the oral cavity is the primary focus of libidal get-up-and-go. The child, of course, preoccupies himself with nursing, with the pleasure of sucking and accepting things into the mouth. The oral character who is frustrated at this stage, whose mother refused to nurse him on demand or who truncated nursing sess ions early, is characterized by pessimism, envy, suspicion and sarcasm.The overindulged oral character, whose nursing urges were always and often excessively satisfied, is optimistic, gullible, and is full of admiration for others around him. The stage culminates in the primary conflict of weaning, which both deprives the child of the sensory pleasures of nursing and of the psychological pleasure of being cared for, mothered, and held. The stage lasts about one and one-half years. The Anal Stage At one and one-half years, the child enters the anal stage.With the advent of bum training comes the childs obsession with the erogenous zone of the anus and with the retention or expulsion of the feces. This represents a classic conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego and superego, which represent the practical and societal pressures to promise the bodily functions. The child meets the conflict between the parents demands and the chi lds desires and physical capabilities in one of deuce ways Either he puts up a fight or he simply refuses to go.The child who wants to fight takes pleasure in excreting maliciously, by chance just before or just after being position on the toilet. If the parents are too lenient and the child manages to derive pleasure and achiever from this expulsion, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character. This character is generally messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents while enjoying the congenial pressure of the built-up feces on his intestine.If this tactic succeeds and the child is overindulged, he will develop into an anal retentive character. This character is neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, and passive-aggressive. The closure of the anal stage, proper toilet training, permanently affects the individual propensities to give birthi on and attitudes towards authority. This stage lasts from one and one-half to two years. The Phallic Stage The phallic stage is the setting for the greatest, most crucial cozy conflict in Freuds model of development.In this stage, the childs erogenous zone is the genital region. As the child becomes more interested in his genitals, and in the genitals of others, conflict arises. The conflict, labeled the Oedipus complex (The Electra complex in women), involves the childs unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate the same-sexed one. In the young male, the Oedipus conflict stems from his natural chouse for his mother, a love which becomes sexual as his libidal energy transfers from the anal region to his genitals. alas for the boy, his pose stands in the way of this love. The boy therefore feels aggression and envy towards this rival, his forefather, and also feels fear that the father will strike back at him. As the boy has noticed that women, his mother in particular, have no fellow memberes, he is potty by a great fear that his father will pull in ones horns his penis, too. The perplexity is aggravated by the threats and discipline he incurs when caught masturbating by his parents. This castration anxiety outstrips his desire for his mother, so he represses the desire.Moreover, although the boy sees that though he cannot posses his mother, be evidence his father does, he can posses her vicariously by identifying with his father and becoming as much like him as possible this identification indoctrinates the boy into his appropriate sexual role in life. A lasting trace of the Oedipal conflict is the superego, the voice of the father within the boy. By thus resolving his incestuous conundrum, the boy passes into the reaction time period, a period of libidal dormancy. On the Electra complex, Freud was more vague.The complex has its roots in the little female childs discovery that she, along with her mother and all other w omen, lack the penis which her father and other men posses. Her love for her father then becomes both erotic and envious, as she yearns for a penis of her own. She comes to blame her mother for her perceived castration, and is soft on(p) by penis envy, the apparent counterpart to the boys castration anxiety. The resolution of the Electra complex is farther less clear-cut than the resolution of the Oedipus complex is in males Freud stated that the resolution comes much later and is never truly complete.Just as the boy versed his sexual role by identifying with his father, so the girl learns her role by identifying with her mother in an attempt to posses her father vicariously. At the eventual resolution of the conflict, the girl passes into the latency period, though Freud implies that she always remains slightly fixated at the phallic stage. Fixation at the phallic stage develops a phallic character, who is reckless, resolute, self-assured, and narcissisticexcessively vain and pr oud.The failure to resolve the conflict can also cause a person to be afraid or incapable of close love Freud also postulated that fixation could be a root cause of homosexuality. latency Period The resolution of the phallic stage leads to the latency period, which is not a psychosexual stage of development, but a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant. Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses. During the latency period, children pour this repressed libidal energy into asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships.But soon puberty strikes, and the genitals once again become a central focus of libidal energy. The Genital Stage In the genital stage, as the childs energy once again focuses on his genitals, interest turns to heterosexual relationships. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved psychosexual developments, the greater his capacity will be to develop normal relationships w ith the opposite sex. If, however, he remains fixated, particularly on the phallic stage, his development will be troubled as he struggles with further repression and defenses.Life Span DevelopmentThe study of lifespan development grew out of Darwins desire to understand evolution. The first study of children was published by G. Stanley Hall. Halls book introduced norms and adolescence to scientists (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Lifespan is the period of time from conception extending to death. This paper will define the development of humans throughout the lifespan and describe the characteristics of the lifespan perspective. Human development domains and periods will be identified and contemporary concerns as related to lifespan development will be identified. Lifespan Development DefinedLifespan development is a process beginning at conception that continues until death. The progression initiates with the emergence of a fetus from a one-celled organism. As the unborn child enters the world the environment in which the child exists begins to influence the childs development (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2001). Lifespan development can be defined as a methodical, intra-individual change associated with progressions corresponding to age. The development progresses in a manner implicating the level of functioning. According to Levinson the life cycle consists of four 25 year eras.The main developmental periods are child and adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. Each eras transition involves a necessary change in the character of the individuals life and sometimes takes up to six years to complete the change (Smith, 2009). The study of human development began with Darwin and other evolutionists. Darwin thought if he studied human development he could further prove his theory of evolution (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Characteristics of the Lifespan Perspective The lifespan perspective argues that significant modifications take place throughout developme nt.The lifelong perspective consists of a development of humans that is multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual. The development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Changes that occur should be interpreted in a manner that considers the culture and context of the occurrences. Through the perspective comprehensions of the modifications of adulthood have gained as much importance as those occurring in childhood an understanding from other disciplines in turn have increased importance in human development.According to Paul Baltes, humans have the capacity of plasticity or positive change to environmental difficulties throughout life. Baltes additionally contributed to the understanding of the positive characteristics of growing old such as learning ways to compensate and overcome (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Human Development Domains The domains of development are categories used by scientists. The categories include, physical, cognitive and socia l domains characterize human development. The physical domain is characterized by how humans grow and change physically, specifically during childhood and adolescence.This domain includes how humans view the world as development progresses as a result of developing vision. Adjustments in the way the world is viewed as the body develops are also included in this domain. The cognitive domain is concerned with how learning occurs and why memory deteriorates during old age. The social domain contains adjustment in variables within social situations such as personality research, social skills and developing relationships. All the domains operate together and are affected by each other (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Human Development PeriodsHuman development periods span the lifetime from conception to the end of life. These periods are as follows, prenatal, early, middle and late childhood. As the child grows and approaches adulthood the periods are adolescence, early, middle and late adulthood. Nu merous theories about the periods of development and the movement from one period to the next exist. Various theories attempt to define how movement from one level to the next level of development occurs. The three major families include psychoanalytic, learning and cognitive theories (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Contemporary Concerns in Lifespan DevelopmentNature versus nurture is one of the many contemporary concerns in lifespan development. Additional concerns in the area of development include continuity and discontinuity. Nature and nurture concerns surround the basis of development. The issue lies in determining the weather genetics or environment influence development. The concern of continuity and discontinuitys impact on development lies in relationship development. The question is whether age-related change is primarily a matter of amount or degree (the continuity side of the debate) or more commonly involves changes in type or kind (the discontinuity side) (Boyd & Bee, 2006, p. ) .Conclusion Development of the lifespan began with Darwin and continues to intrigue psychologists and scientists today. An understanding of how humans develop consists of the domains of physical, cognitive and social advances. The domains occur throughout prenatal, childhood and adult development. As the field expands the controversy of nature versus nurture and continuity and discontinuity continue to perplex those within the field. Freud advanced a theory of personality development that centered on the effects of the sexual pleasure drive on the individual psyche.At particular points in the developmental process, he claimed, a single body part is particularly sensitive to sexual, erotic stimulation. These erogenous zones are the mouth, the anus, and the genital region. The childs libido centers on behavior affecting the primary erogenous zone of his age he cannot focus on the primary erogenous zone of the next stage without resolving the developmental conflict of the immediate one . A child at a given stage of development has certain needs and demands, such as the need of the infant to nurse.Frustration occurs when these needs are not met Overindulgence stems from such an ample meeting of these needs that the child is reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence lock some amount of the childs libido permanently into the stage in which they occur both result in a fixation. If a child progresses normally through the stages, resolving each conflict and moving on, then little libido remains invested in each stage of development.But if he fixates at a particular stage, the method of obtaining satisfaction which characterized the stage will dominate and affect his adult personality. The Oral Stage The oral stage begins at birth, when the oral cavity is the primary focus of libidal energy. The child, of course, preoccupies himself with nursing, with the pleasure of sucking and accepting things into the mouth. The oral character who is frustrated at this stage, whose mother refused to nurse him on demand or who truncated nursing sessions early, is characterized by pessimism, envy, suspicion and sarcasm.The overindulged oral character, whose nursing urges were always and often excessively satisfied, is optimistic, gullible, and is full of admiration for others around him. The stage culminates in the primary conflict of weaning, which both deprives the child of the sensory pleasures of nursing and of the psychological pleasure of being cared for, mothered, and held. The stage lasts approximately one and one-half years. The Anal Stage At one and one-half years, the child enters the anal stage.With the advent of toilet training comes the childs obsession with the erogenous zone of the anus and with the retention or expulsion of the feces. This represents a classic conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego and superego, which represent the practical and societal pressu res to control the bodily functions. The child meets the conflict between the parents demands and the childs desires and physical capabilities in one of two ways Either he puts up a fight or he simply refuses to go.The child who wants to fight takes pleasure in excreting maliciously, perhaps just before or just after being placed on the toilet. If the parents are too lenient and the child manages to derive pleasure and success from this expulsion, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character. This character is generally messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents while enjoying the pleasurable pressure of the built-up feces on his intestine.If this tactic succeeds and the child is overindulged, he will develop into an anal retentive character. This character is neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, and passive-aggressive. The resolution of the a nal stage, proper toilet training, permanently affects the individual propensities to possession and attitudes towards authority. This stage lasts from one and one-half to two years. The Phallic Stage The phallic stage is the setting for the greatest, most crucial sexual conflict in Freuds model of development.In this stage, the childs erogenous zone is the genital region. As the child becomes more interested in his genitals, and in the genitals of others, conflict arises. The conflict, labeled the Oedipus complex (The Electra complex in women), involves the childs unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate the same-sexed one. In the young male, the Oedipus conflict stems from his natural love for his mother, a love which becomes sexual as his libidal energy transfers from the anal region to his genitals.Unfortunately for the boy, his father stands in the way of this love. The boy therefore feels aggression and envy towards this rival, his father, and a lso feels fear that the father will strike back at him. As the boy has noticed that women, his mother in particular, have no penises, he is struck by a great fear that his father will remove his penis, too. The anxiety is aggravated by the threats and discipline he incurs when caught masturbating by his parents. This castration anxiety outstrips his desire for his mother, so he represses the desire.Moreover, although the boy sees that though he cannot posses his mother, because his father does, he can posses her vicariously by identifying with his father and becoming as much like him as possible this identification indoctrinates the boy into his appropriate sexual role in life. A lasting trace of the Oedipal conflict is the superego, the voice of the father within the boy. By thus resolving his incestuous conundrum, the boy passes into the latency period, a period of libidal dormancy. On the Electra complex, Freud was more vague.The complex has its roots in the little girls discover y that she, along with her mother and all other women, lack the penis which her father and other men posses. Her love for her father then becomes both erotic and envious, as she yearns for a penis of her own. She comes to blame her mother for her perceived castration, and is struck by penis envy, the apparent counterpart to the boys castration anxiety. The resolution of the Electra complex is far less clear-cut than the resolution of the Oedipus complex is in males Freud stated that the resolution comes much later and is never truly complete.Just as the boy learned his sexual role by identifying with his father, so the girl learns her role by identifying with her mother in an attempt to posses her father vicariously. At the eventual resolution of the conflict, the girl passes into the latency period, though Freud implies that she always remains slightly fixated at the phallic stage. Fixation at the phallic stage develops a phallic character, who is reckless, resolute, self-assured, and narcissisticexcessively vain and proud.The failure to resolve the conflict can also cause a person to be afraid or incapable of close love Freud also postulated that fixation could be a root cause of homosexuality. Latency Period The resolution of the phallic stage leads to the latency period, which is not a psychosexual stage of development, but a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant. Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses. During the latency period, children pour this repressed libidal energy into asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships.But soon puberty strikes, and the genitals once again become a central focus of libidal energy. The Genital Stage In the genital stage, as the childs energy once again focuses on his genitals, interest turns to heterosexual relationships. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved psychosexual developments, the greater his capacity wi ll be to develop normal relationships with the opposite sex. If, however, he remains fixated, particularly on the phallic stage, his development will be troubled as he struggles with further repression and defenses.

Lamb to the Slaughter- Movie Poster Essay

A dagger-pierced heart is usually associated with the Catholic Sacred rawness of bloody shame. It is known to represent the grieving mother of Christ, who is in addition often called the Lady of Sorrows. However, the heart also migrated into a darker side a modern day symbolisation of vengeance and cruelty. But the real power of the image of a dagger through the heart is a combination of both, each known in their private rights. The heart is seen as the seat of emotions, the core of e real person, as well as love and passion. The dagger has long represented a stealthy artillery unit of choice, which is easily c formerlyaled and quiet.Roald Dahls, Lamb to the Slaughter tells us of one obvious betrayal Patrick Maloneys decision to leave his pregnant wife. This violation of the marriage-vows is ostensibly not the only betrayal in the story. If you look deeper you see that Marys killing of her husband is definitely the ultimate betrayal. Her strategically planned self-justificatio n and convincing lies all add up and go under the category of betrayal. Mary and Patrick Maloney are equally guilty of betrayal, as Patrick emotionally kills his wife, while Mary physically kills her husband. Both parties have hearts full of years worth of emotions, and both hearts have been stealthily and quietly killed.SYMBOLISM THEME individualismThe fingerprint is an impression on the surface of a persons fingertip and is used for identifying individuals from the unique pattern of spirals and lines. Detectives, much like the ones in the chosen little story, use these prints to identify those that have taken part in a crime scene. Its made clear through Dahls interpretation of the Maloney house that Mary has applytedly taken on the model of the perfect middle class wife. Ms. Maloney is a young mid-twentieth-century housewife, keeping a tidy home and supply to her husband.The text states that shes found pouring drinks when Mr. Maloney finishes his day at work and caters to h is every need which is what makes her sudden murderous action the incident to shatter her once perfect image. When dusting and scanning a fingerprint one owner is usually found, but when scanning Marys fingerprint multiple women appear the on-task housewife, the pleasant and caring spouse and soon-to- be mother and finally the murderer. In the end, Mary Maloney will always have one print, but many identities.SYMBOLISM vitrine MARY MALONEYA white lamb is a young sheep, and is portrayed as gentle, meek and innocent, but is also seen as a weakling and as prey. The lamb is usually cheated or outsmarted. The white concept represents its purity. Mary Maloney is definitely a lamb in her innocence and devotion to her husband. When you act out of anger, to a greater extent than a lamb is slaughtered.It actually quite ironic that this lamb is capable of committing the most fair(a) and cunning murder known of. Shes able to commit murder, get rid of the murder weapon, create herself an alib i as well as outsmart the policemen and is still is able to come out with a clean slate. After doing something so horrible and finding the nerve to scheme her way out of it, Mary began to giggle. Her dark giggles at the end of the story, show a contrastive character than the one who started. Murder has changed her from a lamb into a lion.SYMBOLYSM CHARACTER PATRICK MALONEYA mirror is generally defined as a reflective glassful coated surface that reflects a clear image, but more importantly when looked into, you see yourself. Patrick is a very self-centered person, which is why I chose a mirror, as mirrors are associated with selfish people. When informing Mary that he was planning to leave her he gave her all the details and made sure to add, it wouldnt be very good for my job. Its made obvious that Patrick didnt think of his wifes feelings at all, but made sure that everything was done so that it was in his favour. Throughout any situation, in the end Patrick is focused back on himself. Not only does he not consider the feelings of his wife, but he also isnt thinking of his son. Of course he tells Mary that she can keep the baby, but does he think of what life would be for him without his Father?QUOTE compendium CHARACTER PATRICK MALONEYThis character is stereotyped as an unhappy husband who is not pleased with his current marriage. He comes home tired and stressed, but his frustration seems to be coming from his home life rather than his work life. Hed made up his made and got up the nerve to say what he has to say, This is passing to be a bit of a shock to you I hope you wont blame me too much. This quote illustrates the authors expected value on life, which is that people arent always what they seem. Patrick used to be well-liked, respected and the perfect husband but after divorcing his wife he was probably seen as a dog, cheater and fraud. Just as his wife, his identity has changed because of a major complication in his life.QUOTE ANALYSIS THE ME IDENTITYThe author does an clarified job of clearly describing the setting in the first few lines of the story, in order to set the scene for the reader. The setting is seen when Roald Dahl introduces the Maloney home to his new readers, saying, The board was warm and clean, the curtains drawn, the two table lamps alight hers and the one by the empty chair opposite. On the sideboard behind her, two tall glasses, soda water, whiskey, sporting ice cubes in the Thermos bucket. This quote suggests the Mary is the model housewife perfect in all she does. Surprisingly, when Mary finds out that her husband is leaving her she, only walked up behind him and without any pause she swung the big frozen lamb high in the air and brought it down on his head as gravid as she could killing him. This demonstrates how Marys identity changes from a sweet innocent wife into a killer after just hearing bad news show from her husband.FORSHADOWINGAn example of foreshadowing occurs when Patrick takes his drink after getting home from work. Dahl includes in this famous short story that, as Patrick spoke, he did an unusual thing. He lifted his glass and drained it in one swallow although there was still half of it He got up and went slowly over to fetch himself another When he comes back, hisnew drink was dark amber with the quantity of whiskey in it. This quote suggests that Patrick doesnt usually act like this. Its quite obvious that he is very uneasy, and is most likely drinking and delaying in order to build the courage to say or do something he might regret. Patrick does this just in the beginning breaking the news to his soon-to-be ex-wife. His actions foreshadow the unfortunate things that are to come.

Keith Waterhouse and Willis Hall Essay

In this make, based upon a screenplay by Keith Waterhouse and Willis H solely from a novel from Waterhouse (which written in 1959 influenced by the prevailing theme of the mid-fifties the protest of the angry young men), director John Schlesinger creates the fantasized world of wand fisherman (Tom Courtenay), a young man working at the Shadrack and Duxbury funeral parlor who dreams of bonnie a great writer. Julie Christie provides some romance for the awkward clerk.Denys Coops cinematography effectively captures the drab life and imaginative world of billys existence, lending further relevance to the take away in real life. Billy is an original timbre whose fantasy life is funny throughout. Known to his officemates as Billy Liar because he is a compulsive liar, Fisher escapes his dour existence by creating a fantasy life as the military leader of the fictional, semi-fascist kingdom of Ambrosia. This fantasy supplies the power and control lacking in his effortless life where he feels trapped in his job at the funeral parlor.Though chronic fiction is not admirable and his coldness towards his family and his fiancees is dislikable trait, still, overall, Billy is an attractive character, and we can pity him as his rather pathetic pretenses be exposed, while still comprehend the justness of the exposure. Waterhouse has managed to mirror the basic nature of people being dissatisfied with what we have and therefore devising all means to be what we dream to be. Billy Liar remains a pleasing counterpoint to the depressive movies Room at the Top (1958) and Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960).According to Gale (1996), this film that was originally a novel led some commentators to place Waterhouse in the Angry Young Men School. It is in some ways a study of provincial dissatisfaction. Our lives are very similar to Billy in many ways, the reality and fantasy of who we are sharply at odds. Most of us live with a family which is the ether of ordinariness so we compensate by a rich fantasy life and, unfortunately, by dishonesty, much like Billy in the film.Reminiscent of Fishers character, we lie our way through life, not out of malice or even out of any conscious desire to cause devilry or to cause hurt to those around us, precisely purely because we cannot live with, or face up to the demands of, our real lives. The overall mood in the film is, however, disquieting Fishers dreams include killing people, such as his parents, who place obstacles in his way. The film shows that the only real obstacle confronting Fisher is a lack of courage combined with no obvious talent.Much like in real life, we all have a secret vision of doing the unthinkable, bloody or otherwise, to people we extremely dislike. Our judgment is often clouded by anger for other people, which lead to ineffective use of our God-given talents, which in turn hinders the go on that we otherwise could have achieved easily. Despite its very British setting, the film ha s a universal dimension which is even more poignant in todays Internet age.In a sense, Billy Liar is an adroit satire about a society caught between socio-economic classes. Billy Fishers character is therefore struggling against the limitations of his class, family and urban environment for a better opportunity to display his ability. This theme is relevant even today, as we all strive daily to move up the social and economic ladder of society, as a response to our natural trait to be forever dissatisfied.One cannot help but be fond of and relate to Billy Liar, a unique character that deeply depicts in what boils down to a humorous yet solemn and incontrovertibly influential movie. It is apparent that this film appealed and is still appealing to audiences precisely because Billys lack of courage, commitment and his flights of fancy are not so removed removed from those of ourselves. Many of us live in dreams where we do spectacular things but given the chance we would not have the courage to accomplish them.Likewise, the film affirms that, ultimately, we must live with, rather than in opposition tom the real world, no matter how painful and uncertain the experience of that invariably will be. firearm on one level this film could be dismissed as a whimsical fantasy, there is a Billy Liar that exists in all of us. WORK CITED Gale, S. (1996). Encyclopedia of British Humorists Geoffrey Chaucer to John Cleese. Philadelphia Taylor and Francis.

Pentecostal History Essay

The largest and the most important religious movement to originate from the United States is the pentecostal Movement. It is considered as the ordinal force in Christendom alongside Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodox, and its exponential growth rate in terms of adherents is testimony to its appeal. The Charismatic Renewal Movement has some of its roots in historic Pentecostalism, and it is now deeply entrenched in most of the mainline Protestant denominations, in Catholicism, and in some Orthodox.In the 21st Century, the total adherents of Pentecostals and Charismatics credibly exceed the combined numbers of Protestants and Orthodox. Pentecostal statistics show a total adherent base of 400 million in 1993,including the 200 million members designated as nominational Pentecostals and 200 million Charismatics in the main Protestant denominations and Catholicism. When the day of Pentecost had come, they were all together in one place. And suddenly a sound came from heaven wish we ll the rush of a mighty wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting.And there appeared to them tongues as of fire, distributed and resting on each one of them(Garnett 1987) The Acts of the Apostles, 21-3 (Cox 1995) Background History Adherents of Pentecostalism number their name from an incident recounted in Chapter two of the Acts of the Apostles. The story describes how the confused followers of a recently crucified Rabbi whom they all believed to be the messiah of the population, had gathered to mark the 50th day after Passover.Suddenly there was a heavenly sound like the rush of a mighty wind. The Holy Spirit filled them, tongues as of fire crowned their heads, and surprisingly they could understand each others language although the gathering comprised people from many different countries and different linguistic affinities. Apparently, the antiquated curse of Babel had been reversed and that God was creating a new inclusive human community in which Parthians and Medes and Elamites and residents of Mesopotamia could all live together.Origins of the Pentecostal Faith The first Pentecost appeared on the scene in 1901 in Topeka, Kansas in a Bible school conducted by Charles Fox Parham, a piety teacher and former Methodist rector. in that respect exists considerable controversy about the origins and timings of Parhams emphasis on glossolalia there is general agreement amongst historians that the movement was initiated in the first days of 1901, in the start of the Twentieth Century.One of Parhams Bible School students Agnes Ozman , was the first person to be baptized in the Holy Spirit and she thereafter began speaking in different tongues on the very first day of the new century on January 1, 1901. According to J. Roswell Flower, the founding Secretary of the Assemblies of God, Ozmans experience was the touch snarl round the world, an event which made the Pentecostal Movement of the Twentieth Century.Due to the Topeka Pentecost, Parham postulated the philosophical system that tongues (glossolalia) was the biblical evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit and that it a was a supernatural ability endowed for the purpose of world evangelization. Glossolalia is an experiential phenomenon of an ecstatic, altered state of consciousness, in which orgiastic techniques are cultivated to achieve eagerness in the belief that unusual psychological and physical states are synonymous with Spirit-possession. He added that since missionaries had the ability to speak in any language, they need non tick off any new language for the purpose of evangelical preaching.Armed with this new theology, Parham founded a church movement which he called the Apostolic Faith and began a whirlwind revival meeting tour of the American Middle West to promote his exciting new experience. saw an angel coming down from heaven With the key to the abyss and a great Chain in his hand. He seized the dragon and chained him up for a thousand years So that he might not tempt the nations until the thousand years were over. Revelation 201-3 Fed by broken packing cases and discarded wrapping paper the fire quickly stretch from the boarded-up Casino to the empty Music Hall.From there sparks flew through the arctic night to the roofs of the exposition(Cox 1995). Prophecy of the Pentecost Traditionally, Americans have always had a strong dose of millenium cut in to them, covering the time the puritans landed in New England to the revival preachers who traveled the Midwest on horseback, they were continually being told that the last stages of history was efflorescence and that America would play a major role in the grand finale. Going in to the 20th century, prophecies and speculations regarding a new Pentecost and a New capital of Israel were rife.And in the last days it shall be, God declares, That I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh Acts of the Apostles 217-19 The fire from heaven descended on April 9, 1906, on a small band of foul domestic servants and custodial employees gathered for prayer in a wooden bungalow at 214 join Bonnie Brae Avenue in Los Angeles, California. (Cox 1995) Pastor at Azusa route Seymour who had learned the tongues-attested baptism in a Bible school that Parham conducted in Houston, Texas in 1905 was invited to pastor a black holiness church in Los Angeles in 1906.Seymour opened the historic meeting in April, 1906 in a former African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church building at 312 Azusa Street in downtown Los Angeles. The happenings at Azusa have fascinated church historians for decades and have never been fully dumb or explained (Wackman 1994). For three years thereafter, the Azusa Street Apostolic Faith Mission conducted three services a day, seven days a week, where thousands of seekers received the tongues baptism. intelligence agency of the revival was spread abroad through The Apostolic Faith, a paper that Seymour sent free of charge to some 50,000 subscribers.From Azusa Street Pentecostalism spread rapidly slightly the world and began its advance toward becoming a major force in Christendom. The Azusa Street movement seems to have been a merger of white American holiness religion with worship styles derived from the African-American Christian tradition which had developed since the days of chattel slavery in the South. The expressive worship and praise at Azusa Street, which include shouting and dancing, had been common among Appalachian whites as well as Southern blacks.The admixture of tongues and other charisms with black music and worship styles created a new and native form of Pentecostalism that was to prove extremely attractive to disinherited and deprived people, both in America and other nations of the world(MacRoberts 1988). Pentecost has come to Los Angeles, the American Jerusalem. Every sect, creed and doctrine under heaven as well as every nation is represented. (Frank Bartleman,1906). The Inter racial Aspect The interracial mi ngling at the congregations was a sodding(a) contrast to the existing racial tensions and segregations of the times.The interracial aspects of the movement in Los Angeles were a striking exception to the racism and segregation of the times. The phenomenon of blacks and whites worshipping together under a black pastor seemed incredible to many observers. The event also cemented William Seymours place as not only the most influential black leader in American History, but also as a co-founder of world Pentecostalism(Deyoung et al 2003). This is the work of God, and cannot be stopped. While our enemies scold, we pray and the fire burns Household of God, Nov. 1907 dispel of Pentecostal The Azusa Street movement in 1906, led by the African-American preacher William Joseph Seymour provided the much needed impetus for the spread of the Pentecostal faith, which until then had not really captured popular imagination. The first wave of Azusa pilgrims journeyed throughout the United States spr eading the Pentecostal fire, primarily in holiness churches, missions, and camp meetings. In America Gaston Barnabas Cashwell of northern Carolina, who spoke in tongues in 1906 was one of the Azusa Pilgrims, whose six-month preaching tour of the South in 1907 resulted in major inroads among southern holiness folk.Under his ministry, Cashwell saw several(prenominal) holiness denominations swept into the new movement, including the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), the Pentecostal Holiness Church, the Fire-Baptized Holiness Church, and the Pentecostal Free-Will Baptist Church. Also in 1906, Charles Harrison Mason ,upon his return to Memphis from Azusa Street, spread the Pentecostal fire in the Church of God in Christ. The Church he founded comprised African-Americans only one generation removed from slavery. (The parents of both Seymour and Mason had been born as southern slaves).Although tongues caused a split in the church in 1907, the Church of God in Christ experienced such e xplosive growth that by 1993, it was by far the largest Pentecostal denomination in North America, claiming some 5,500,000 members in 15,300 local churches. Another Azusa pilgrim was William H. Durham of Chicago. After receiving his tongues experience at Azusa Street in 1907, he returned to Chicago, where he led thousands of mid-western Americans and Canadians into the Pentecostal movement.In 1914, he established the Assemblies of God, which by 1993 had over 2,000,000 members in the U.S. and some 25,000,000 adherents in 150 nations of the world. determination The Pentecostal Movement has proved to be a major force in Christendom throughout the world with unprecedented exponential growth of adherents. By the Nineties, The Pentecostals and their magnetized brothers and sisters in the mainline Protestant and Catholic churches had turned their energy and resources to world evangelization. The future will reveal the ultimate results of this movement which has greatly impacted the world during the Twentieth Century.

Home Is Where the Heart Is

Growing up in foster care kids never grow to understand the phrase, Home is where the heart is. This phrase isnt fashioning reference to a house or a tangible item in your life. An emotional connection you acquire with someone or something is what I confidence home represents. The feeling of being secure, knowing youll be taken care of no mater what you say or do, and always feeling like your love and wanted. Hundreds of kids have grown accustomed to the feeling of hopelessness and loneliness. Kids have grown accustomed to feeling like they dont belong anywhere I was once one of those kids.I commemorate the bone-chilling feeling of seeing the black almost hearse-like car coming to take me away from the only place I was familiar with. I remember the feeling of confusion, the feeling of sorrow, and the feeling of anger. I remember getting into the car and smelling the old, damp, mildewed scent of previous the riders tears. The tears I had grown so accustomed to. I remembered how I wished to scream and squeal, like the brakes, when the car stopped at my new quarters. I remember telling myself, Dont get comfortable Josh, because you wont be here long, right?Ill be home soon. Right? I remember the feeling of being abandoned, the feeling of being unwanted, feeling just plain alone. Throughout my years as a foster child and adolescent, I moved in and out of countless houses, met and said goodbye to countless families, friends, and instructors. I remember the Bensons they took me in when I was seven. I had already been moved close to eight times. The first thing they said to me was, Itll be okay, you dont have to worry anymore, youll be here for a long time. The weight of unbelief lifting off your shoulders is a good feeling in fact, it could be the best.Being able to take off your shoes, plunge round off on the couch, and say hello to someone who says hello punt. Having the ability to look someone in the center fields and, not only feel, but here, I lov e you. Home to me is all of those things fasten together and put in my back pocket, saved for a rainy day. I grew comfortable and unworried the two years I didnt have to pack around any extra weight with me. It was presentation day, in my third grade clique. For my presentation I chose an animal, the cheetah.Did you know that a family of cheetahs will get together until the babies are all grown up, and will support each other? I gave my presentation and was feeling good about it. I was chosen to hold our class pet, the gerbil, he was brown and smelled almost exactly like an old crusty sock, I was overtaken by the joy of his sensitive pulsing body. My class and I were sitting in a circle around my teacher, listening to our daily reading of the second Harry Potter, when the door opened and the sound of my teachers representative was cut short of telling us what happened next.Two gloomy adults came in, a man and a woman. The man was tall, change in nice black goldbrick and a black sports jacket, the woman was short, dressed in black dress pants and a red sweater which had thirteen black buttons straight down the front. My teacher excused herself and met them at the front of the class. My friend and I started laughing at the gerbil he was doing summersaults on my lap and almost fell off. Josh, my teacher called my name, Come up here please, I gave the gerbil to my friend and went to the front of the class.As I was walking to the front of the class, I noticed my teachers eyes they seemed to be turning a glossy color, almost like two wet marbles shimmering in the bright sun. The two people dressed in black were smiling down at me with blank expressionless looks on there faces and said hello. Their words were cold and harsh. I noticed a sharp fast glare, almost like needles, injected from my teacher to the two people dressed in black. My teacher knelt down to my level so we were both eye to eye. She stared at me with her big marbles and said, Josh, these p eople are going to take you out to lunch.You need to go with them, OK Josh. My teachers eyes were getting wetter, You need to be a big boy, OK Josh. You be a big boy now. Before I knew it, she had engulfed me into her chest, wrapped me neatly into her arms, and covered my orient with her chin. Warmth and love surged through my body as if I was hit by a bolt of lightning cupid had mistaken for an arrow. I felt up a warm drop of water hit my head. OK Josh, it is time to go, said the large man dressed in black. I felt his cold hand watch my shoulder, abruptly stopping the lightning from continuing through my body, forcing it out of me.My teacher released me, stood back to her full height, and pricked them agin with her needle. The woman dressed in black took my hand her hand felt like an ice cube, cold and damp. The man and woman led me away from my teacher, away from my friends, away from my security, away from my love, away from my peace. As soon as I got into the lifeless car, all of the lost feelings returned to me at once. Its happened again. Whats wrong this time? Was it me? Maybe I can take whatever I did back and say Im sorry? Josh, were taking you to another house.An enormous weight hit my chest I couldnt breathe, I felt my eyes swelling, my nose began to run. A salty liquid hit my mouth again and again, my memories flooding out, like millions of bees swarming and stinging after their homes have been breached by smoke, engulfing me. merely as I had felt for years and years kids are still felling today. Kids still feel unwanted and unloved, kids still dont have the conformity and trust they need to become who they are and construct their home, and kids still have the lay their head down every night and wonder if the pillow their put on will be the same tomorrow night.Kids in foster care may have a house but they dont have anyone they can make a home with. People in the foster system are so concerned with is putting kids in houses (not formula t hat this is a bad thing), but they should focus more on the home. Instead of being full of emptiness the kids homes that they create, should be full of trust and security, truthfulness and consistency, laughter and love.

Constitutionality of the new health care reforms Essay

This paper chance uponks to discuss the constitutionality of the unseasoned heartyness vex justice in the United States of America, the low- price Health misgiving Act. The paper impart discuss on the diverse understanding and whim of the new truth among the common citizenry in America, business class as well as the wellness take attend to departrs.Health c be to any person is a sensitive point attracts attention of any governing body that is willing to adopt its citizens remain healthy and productive. It is a constitutional want for the government provides afford able-bodied health care to its citizens. This is what the United States government has moved to enable done The Affordable Health fearfulness Act. This Acts principle focus is to ensure more(prenominal) Americans are able to advance affordable health care. The bill provided for better musical note of health care, affordable attention to any Americans, especially those of low economy in the country. Imp roved and affordable health care extending to all guarantees access to health care to the young and the seniors as well as those with pre-existent conditions (Siegel, N.S. 2012).Though the numbers of the citizens who deal enrolled in the health care curriculums after the enactment of The Affordable Health care is non as high as expected, the percentages of the individuals enrolled in the health care services. This whitethorn be attributed to the convenience attached the programs that does non discriminate against age or conditions at the time of enrollment.However the rising numbers of the individuals enrolling in the program have come with the various challenges, some of which are detrimental to pluralitys welfare. Due to the severely planned change of medical care, a spectacular number of Americans have been forced to abandon their preceding(prenominal) health damages services from the companies were not abiding to all the provisions of the new standards set by the new r ules. The period between changes of health care insurance penetrate to the new program was not provided for by the government, including the value forgone, which is not compensable by the government. The new rules have created panic among upcoming health insurance providers who were not attaining the standards provided in the new police force due(p) to loss of clientele. As a result, unemployment has been experience to galore(postnominal) and to the un grappleable employee retention capabilities of the affected companies (Siegel, N.S. 2012).The Act provides for access to the service by young adults who may not be able to afford to pay the premiums themselves by accessing the cover through their parents or guardians plan. boylike adults below the age of 26 are eligible to the affordable health care point if they cannot be able to raise their own premiums. This has guaranteed affordable and quality health care to millions of unemployed young adults.The polity was created to r each more people and enable them access health care. The move was right and targeted the greater wad of Americas population through the service to the young adults. However the statistics show that older people get sick and need the insurance cover overmuch more than younger people and then the policy only theoretically reaches more people through the youth, but more so discover to identify the bigger population that is vulnerable to ailments (Bateman C. 2013).Through this plan, more people who appreciate the new law will end up dropping their current health service providers who are not live friendly for the new affordable and quality plan. This will cause a confusion to the health service providers who may be facing abrupt changes which will affect scores of people who seek their services, thus ailing their businesses.The law leaves the State and the federal government to raise funds to be able to pay the plan. This translates to increased revenue collected by the kingdom and the federal government, which means taxes will be and ride out to be increased in order to exert the health plan (Parks D. 2012).The law has as well provided for the Children health insurance plan, which has seen the number of the children reached go up to nine million children. The Act has given pledge to the mothers of quality and affordable health insurance services for their children. Reaching up to over nine million children means more funding requirements for the program to run smoothly. This has called for increased taxation on Americans to sustain the program. This is because financial support has to be done by the federal government and the state (Siegel, N.S. 2012).The services come with lowered address as compared to the pre-existing form of health insurance service provision. At the low cost of accessing health care insurance, more Americans find themselves in a situation where they have irrelevant or no reason for lack of health care insurance cover. One of the core elements of the Affordable health care act is that the people have more say in the access and quality of service. This is contrary to the designer system where a few health insurance companies controlled the business making the citizens vulnerable to the efficiency of the partnership administrations which affected the quality and cost of service.The cost to service seekers is properly considered for the fact that insurance companies will not be able to arbitrarily increase the cost of premiums. This set aparts the contributors of the premiums, be it the employers, employees or the unemployed in a state where they are able to plan for their money over longer periods of time. The welfare of the contributors is also saved by the law in that the insurers are supposed to ensure that the expenses are primarily and sorely on providing health care and not other non-related be or even administrative costs.Low cost associated with access to proper, affordable and quality healthcare has come by courtesy of un-intentional sacrifice of Americans to fund and observe the program. Funding by the government only means more funds demanded from the public, which is only possible through raised taxation.Low cost is also arguably determined as unrealistic as the sign costs for the program to come to life and run is not clearly portrayed. The program faced great challenges in the internet communication platform that is supposed to be easy and user-friendly for all. Setting up of the platform is another high costing endeavor that the government had to go through, with the taxpayers money to see it work.initial costs may be high and seem unrealistic to run the program, but the analysts show that the government will not only be able to see it budgets deficit covered, but also a lot of savings on insurance health care of the state and the federal governments with time.The Act has put to an end lifetime and annual limits. This comes much cost effectively extending just bene fits to the enjoyment of the insurance policy. This is much better as related to the earlier plans in which thither were annual dollar limits allowed for the insured. The plan demanded the superabundance of limits gainful in cash, which limited the insured from the accessing the insurance services. The plans entail the patients right to maintain the health provider at more lowered costs. The idea of covering patients with pre-existing conditions and normal costs is a new thing that has seen many Americans embrace the laws (In Hall, M. A, & In Allhoff, F. 2014).Old people can now good enroll for the programs and enjoy the health insurance services without being exorbitantly charged or even being denied the services due to their age. This has clearly portrayed the intended purpose of the law, which is to reach out the all, and especially the low to middle income Americans as well as the old. Due to the affordability of the premiums, it has translated to increased number of would b e marginalized stem being able to enjoy the services of the program. The plan has managed to reduce the biased quality of service among assorted health providers based on their ability to pay for the most qualified consultants, leading to the high cost of acquiring highly qualified health consultants, which often leads to a deficiency of consultants in other facilities due to their low cost and inability to pay the best consultants.The affordable health care plan has many positives, but has failed to protect the plight of businesses behind healthcare services. The health service providers are forced to communicate health services inside the limits of the available resources, thus limiting their competitive advantage which often leads to improved quality of services with competitive costs.This has as well come with the challenge of increased need for more funding, by the federal government and the state. Sources of revenue such as taxes have to be enhanced to manage the services a nd also to maintain them (In Hall, M. A, & In Allhoff, F. 2014).The law has provided that for businesses with up to 50 employees on a full time engagement must be provided for the cover by the business. This has made the access to the insurance cover to many more employees. Employer are now able to afford quality and affordable health insurance services for their employees. The law has seen the insurance premiums compensable by employers go down significantly with no via media on quality of health service or even reducing the number of employees.This is the bigger mental image of the plan, however, other employers see the new law being inefficient, costly and failing with lack of clarity on the very vestigial issues when it comes to health care services and therefore seeking more satisfying alternatives. This state of the situation is making many employers to maintain their existing health insurance schemes, even if costly to them and their employees, basing on the fact that the y understand the schemes they have been used and are not ready to shift to a new model that is not well known to the would be beneficiary, or even the service providers to whom the plan has been oblige through the law.The obvious uncertainties have led to unplanned costly programs by many employers who are opting to provide their employees with education on how to lower health risks or exposure to activities or situations that would warrant them seeking health services. (In Hall, M. A, & In Allhoff, F. 2014).ConclusionsThe health care is a new beginning for Americans in the health laws and sector. The law will be able to guarantee the intended subject with coverage that provides them with unbiased provision of services, whether they have pre-existing condition or not, with no health plans to limit or even plans that limit childrens benefits. The law has provided the young generation with an assurance of health care plan that was never thought of to cover in such a manner that even poor young people could afford. This will see parents who have young adults under their care access affordable and quality health care.The plan will see an end to insurance coverage withdraws by insurance companies on the basis of honest mistakes. This will curb continued enjoyment of services. The plan has as well come with the right to reconsideration for rejection of payments which was not there before.The police force will see to great favorable cost effects the states, federal governments, employers, employees and the unemployed. This will be due to the removal of lifetime limits. The law prohibits increasing of insurance premiums through controlled review process, which will be done in public and must show reason. The new plans are also designed and point to ensure that the insured get value for money by making sure that money paid up premiums for health insurance is utilized on health insurance. This will limit insurance companies from employ money contributed as health p remiums for their own non-health related activities.The new law will see to it that care is provided to the best level possible. This is provided by the fact that the cover caters for preventive care without costs under recommendations. The law also gives the insured the prerogative to choose a doctor who will provide basic care needed. This not only gives the insured the right to the choice of the doctor as a fundamental thing necessarily, but also the confidence of the insured that as the insured is in control of health paid for.The plan has created a high level of freedom as to emergency services sought by doing away with barriers usually planted by insurance companies. This plan provides the insured with the feeling and enjoyment of fundamental freedom and right to immediate and quality emergency attention at any health facility, whether within or outside his network in a health plan.The basic provisions of this law are well within the fundamental rights and freedoms of the Amer ican populations as provided in the constitution and other laws. The Affordable health care Act does not violate any constitutional provision in its endeavor to ensure quality and affordable health care.ReferencesBateman, C. (December 01, 2013). Pretenders to the throne of affordable healthcare? izindaba.South African Medical Journal,103,12, 885-886.Health Law Institute, & Pennsylvania Bar Institute. (2012).18th annual Health Law Institute. Mechanicsburg, Pa. Pennsylvania Bar Institute.In Hall, M. A., & In Allhoff, F. (2014).The Affordable Care Act decision Philosophical and legal implications.Parks, D. (2012).Health Care Reform simplify What Professionals in Medicine, Government, Insurance, and Business Need to Know. Dordrecht Springer.Sachs, Stephen E. (2012).The Uneasy Case for the Affordable Care Act. (Faculty Scholarship.) Duke University School of Law.Siegel, N. S. (2012).The constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act Ideas from the academy. Durham, North Carolina Duke Univ ersity School of LawSource document

The Secret Guardian of Gotham

The Dark gymnastic horse portrays Batman well enough for the audience to easily analyze Batmans feature articles and personality. Batman is one of the most crucial characters in the movie. Bruce Wayne, or Batman, is portrayed as a billionaire and an owner of a gigantic industry, who actually at nighttime works as a vigilante fighting criminals with his bare hands. Batmans sense of morality, self-righteousness, and self-sacrificial attitude in his actions allow effortless classification of Batmans characteristics in True Colors constitution Test, Myers-Briggs Personality Test, and Maslows Hierarchy of Needs.The way Batman believes the good in race, and the way he spends his nights for the safety of the people in Gotham proves that Batman is most wantly the color blue from the True Colors Personality Test. People with blue characteristic hate with fervor, value harmony, give self to others, promotes feelings and warmth among people, and are too generous. Batman crepuscles into a ll of these descriptions. notwithstanding though Batman abhors Joker, he never kills Joker despite all of the chances he is given because he believes in change in human potential, because he wants to inspire others through his actions, and because of his stern self righteousness of forever wanting to do what is good for everyone. Also when Harvey Dent died after killing five people fairly, Batman tells deputy sheriff Gordon to point the finger at him instead of Harvey Dent. Batman says, You will persist me. You will condemn me.Set the dogs on me, because that is what needs to happen, (The Dark Knight) in order for people of Gotham to not lose hope by earshot and seeing the downfall of the Gothams White Knight, Harvey Dent. This sacrificing attitude is difficult to find in the characteristics of orange, green, and gold, but is the gracious feature of the color blue. Towards the end of the movie, when Joker sees that the two ships didnt bomb each other, Batman tells him, This city further showed you that it is full of people ready to believe in good, (The Dark Knight) implying that he, as well, believes in good constitution of humans.From what is shown, my hypothesis would be that Bruce Waynes dichotomies are ESFJ, or extraverted, sensing, feeling, and judging. Even though Bruce Wayne is surreptitiously living another(prenominal) life as Batman, with only a few close confidants being aware of it, he seems to enthral social gatherings and occasional dates with many contrastive women. He approaches his criminals through high tech researches and careful observations of facts and proofs. Batman besides does not use his sudden insights to act and rather weighs the different possibilities using his tangible sources. Therefore, I wear thin that Batman is more sensing than intuitive.Bruce Wayne is more feeling in the way he processes data because he considers the points of fancy of other people and he tries to do whatever establishes harmony within the societ y. For example, when Bruce Wayne had turned every mobile phone phone in the city into a microphone and a high-frequency generator receiver, sharp that Lucius would not like such dangerous machine, he made it accessible and destructible by only Lucius. Also knowing that citizens of Gotham will lose hope and faith if they learn the truth behind Harvey Dents fall and death, Batman says, Sometimes the truth is not good enough. Sometimes people merit more.Sometimes people deserve to have their faith rewarded. (The Dark Knight) Batman also shows his willingness to do whatever is needed to help Gotham by saying, I am whatever Gotham needs me to be. (The Dark Knight) Maybe because Batman is so engrossed in many different endless jobs he has to finish, he never seems to be having his pleasure and leisure time. He always seems to be task oriented and organized in his plans and well in control with the help of Alfred Pennyworth and Lucius hold so that the plans never fail. Watching this movie, I could not help but notice the parallel between Jesus from the Bible and Batman.Just like the historical character Jesus, who supposedly had no sin and dedicated to give up his own life for the forgiveness of others, and who eventually gets accused by the same people who used to acclaim him as the Savior, Batman, who did nothing against the morals, gets chased by those who used to praise him as the Hero, by becoming the scapegoat. Therefore, in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, even though I believe that Batman is sometimes on the level of safe and security because he gets injured often while fighting against criminals and Joker, Batman is primarily on the level of self-actualization.He truly dedicates himself for the benefit of others and to satisfy what the citizens of Gotham want. He knows what he is meant to do and does what he does not as a service for himself but as a guidance for the citizens of Gotham. Lieutenant Gordon, watching Batman agitate away, tells his son, Becau se he is the wiz Gotham deserves, but not the one it needs right now, so we will hunt him because he can take it. He is not our hero hes a mum guardian, a watchful protector, a dark knight. (The Dark Knight)Bruce Wayne, Batman, or the Dark Knights characteristics summed in concert support Batmans famous quote, Batman has no limits. (The Dark Knight) The way he dives into danger every day, cleans up all the violent and illegal mess made in Gotham, and sacrifices himself for peoples mental pouffe proves his idealistic characteristics. Because he has no limit, I believe he was able to be the person and the hero portrayed in the movie. Without Batman, his perfect sense of morality, and his boldly courageous deeds, Gotham would not be the same.

Paleolithic

Our class will be going outside to try to help us understand paleolithic times. We will experience the worldly concern as palaeolithic sight did bringing only what we can carry, having no permanent shelters, creating our own prowess from the materials around us and having to figure out the best place to stay. For this activity, we will assume that you are traveling in a small family host that Is part of a larger group of 31. You can be with either two other people or put to work with a partner, representing the core family group. It was typical of Paleolithic times that related core family groups would join together o form a larger group.This family would work together to gather food and protect each other. The group was usually between 15 and 30 people, though smaller and larger groups existed. As they traveled, different family groups would meet to exchange goods that they had made and they likely shared out Information about the local environment. Young people likely mov ed between groups in ordering to share expertise (a group with several artists might exchange an artist for a skilled hunter) or to meet the inevitably of both groups (a group with extra males may s sack some to another group in exchange for goods or services).Over time, the larger group size allowed for some specialized roles to develop. The majority of people in the group would supply food for everyone, giving some people free time. For instance, a religious leader, artist or expert craftsman might supply the groups spiritual or technological needs rather than hunting or parenting. Women could take on a leadership role in the group. Women who self-contained plants and hunted for small animals in many cases supplied most of the food for the group. In their role as mothers, they were protect from the most dangerous designates, such as hunting or participating In battles with enemies.Instead, these types of tasks would be left hand to the extra males (the young and unattached m en who were not yet In religious, artistic or craftsmen roles). Your task is to imagine yourself as part of Paleolithic times and to complete the following tasks. Your teacher will stipulate that you are done at least Number 1 and Number 2 before the end of the period 1. Use the map you have been given to decide where you will camp and have at least one person in your core family group record your reasons in the space provided. administer the wants and needs of your group in addition to the geography of the area n your decision. . Using the tarp, sucks, butter spit and string, create a stable shelter. It will be 3. Using the modeling clay (which we are guise is natural clay or soft stone), carve a Paleolithic figure and place it at the door of your shelter. 4. As a group or pair, explain what you think the daily life of Paleolithic people might have been like by creating a daily timeline to explain what your family would do at your campsite between the time you woke up and the t ime you went to sleep. Try to include the challenges you faced today, such as weather, teamwork, etc. In your experience.

Cash flow analysis

The conjunctions currency flows from operational activities were inadequate to cover depreciation and dividend payments from FYI to IFFY. This indicates that HEAD Banks bills flow engine is not generating enough cash to keep the company whole for those three years. However, the company generated excess cash in IFFY, which was used for egression and investment purposes. Thus, the cash flow engine is not very powerful. However, it is showing signs of recovery in the new-fashioned years. Pinpointing the Good News and the Bad News The capital expenditure shows an increasing trend and is around 1 . Xx of appreciation.In addition, it made significant investment in subsidiaries and Joint-ventures, which is another growth indicators. However, these indicators have not remained arranged throughout. Such investments were only made in FYI 1 and IFFY. HEAD Bank has consistently borrowed from other banks in the form of term deposits and demand deposits to pay dividends and for capital expe nditure. This can be considered as a evil news because it doesnt have sufficient cash flow from operating activities. Puzzle Since the company is operating in the Banking and Finance Industry, Reserve Bank ofIndia norms mandate that the company hold a large proportion of cash along with significant deposits with the RIB (CAR and SSL norms) in order to maintain liquidity. The cash and bank balances held by the company has ranged from xx to xx of their net income. Earlier, we identified a few unusual line items, which are explained as under In IFFY, RIB increase policy rates by 1 . 75% and Ribs borrowings against SSL increased by almost 270%. After adjusting for this, cash flow from operating activities shows a positive figure in IFFY.In the cash flow from operating activities, the cash used in distributing loans & advances as well as reservation investments (operating activity since it is a bank) exceed the cash generated from increase in deposits. This has resulted in a negative c ash flow from operating activities in 3 out of 5 years. This requires the company to seek outside sources for supporting such as financial borrowings from other banks and financial institutions. This may not necessarily be a negative sign if the returns from operating activities exceed the net borrowing costs and hence reaping the benefits of leverage. Housing reading Finance Corporation

Strategies of Knowledge Acquisition

Strategies of K like a shotledge Acquisition Author(s) Deanna Kuhn, Merce Garcia-Mila, Anat Zohar, Christopher Andersen, Sheldon H. White, David Klahr, Sharon M. sculpturer Source Monographs of the family for Research in tike Development, Vol. 60, No. 4, Strategies of Knowledge Acquisition (1995), pp. i+iii+v-vi+1-157 Published by Black headspring Publishing on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development Stable URL http//www. jstor. org/stable/1166059 . Accessed 16/09/2011 1338 Your determination of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . ttp//www. jstor. org/pold jump on/info/ astir(predicate)/policies/ m acetary value. jsp JSTOR is a non-for-profit service that helps scholars, exploreers, and students disc everywhere, use, and build upon a wide range of satiate in a trusted digital archive. We use in compriseation technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new(a)(a) forms of scholarship. For to a greater extent information to the highest degree JSTOR, please contact emailprotected org. Black substanti onlyy Publishing and Society for Research in Child Development ar collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, exert and extend access to Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. ttp//www. jstor. org OF MONOGRAPHS THE IN FOR SOCIETY RESEARCH claw DEVELOPMENT Serial No. 245, Vol. 60, No. 4, 1995 OF STRATEGIES companionship eruditeness Deanna Kuhn Merce Garcia-Mila Anat Zohar Andersen Christopher BY WITH COMMENTARY SheldonH. White David Klahr and Sharon M. Carver BY AND A REPLY THEAUTHORS MONOGRAPHSTHE OF SOCIETY RESEARCH FOR INCHILD DEVELOPMENT SerialNo. 245, Vol. 60, No. 4, 1995 CONTENTS ABSTRACT v I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. METHOD 24 III. KNOWLEDGE IN expertness ADULTS 33 IV. KNOWLEDGE IN ACQUISITION CHILDREN 42 V. STRATEGIES STRATEGY AND CHANGE ADULTS 50 IN VI.STRATEGIES STRATEGY AND CHANGE CHILDREN 64 IN VII. THE PROCESS CHANGE OF 75 VIII. CONCLUSIONS 98 REFERENCES121 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 128 COMMENTARY TOWARD EVOLUTIONARY AN EPISTEMOLOGY OF scientific REASONING SheldonH. White 129 SCIENTIFIC THINKING ABOUT SCIENTIFIC THINKING David Klahr and Sharon M. Carver 137 REPLY SCIENTIFIC AND KNOWLEDGE THINKING ACQUISITION Deanna Kuhn 152 CONTRIBUTORS 158 STATEMENT OF EDITORIAL POLICY 160 ABSTRACT KUHN, DEANNA GARCIA-MILA,MERCE ZOHAR, ANAT and ANDERSEN, CHRISTOPHER. WithCommentary Strategiesof KnowledgeAcquisition. nd H. KLAHR SHARON CARVER and SHELDON WHITE by DAVID M. by KUHN. and a Reply by DEANNA theSociety Research in Monographs of for Child 1995, 60(4, SerialNo. 245). Development, In this Monograph, is noesisacquisition examinedas a excogitate atinthe coordinationof existing theorieswith new grounds. Although volving enquiryers storyingconceptualchange capture described s harbourrrensevolving theories indoorsnumerous worlds,relatively subaltern attentionhas been given to the tools meansof whichtheories atomic number 18 formed and reviseand by familiarityis t herebyacquired.Centralto the turn in attainis the claimthat strategiesof acquaintance acquisitionmay vary signifi skunktly crossways (as thoroughly as inwardly) individualsand eject be conceptualized indoors a developmental frame use. To cultivationthese strategiesand their development,we use a microgenetic method acting. Our application the method allowsextendedobservation the of of of acquisition association indoorsa domain,of the strategiesuse to acquire this fellowship,and of the changein these strategies overtime.The method as well as allows qualitativeanalysisof individualsand quantitativeanalysisof classs to be utilise in complementary ways. Knowledge acquisition processeswereexaminedat two fester levels. Community college adults and preadolescentsparticipatedin two 30-45-min individualsessions apiece hebdomad over a 10-week extent. Subjectsworked on difficultysinvolvinga broad range of contentfrom most(prenominal) forcibleand so cial domains. A transmit plan was situated within this microgeneticframework,for the aspirationof assessing abstractionof strategies withthe introduction of new content.Subjectsof both(prenominal)(prenominal) ages delegateedprogressacrossthe 10 weeksin the level of strategiesused as tumefy as standardisedity the form that this progresstook. in levelsthatdid non varygreatly,childrenshowed Despite sign achieveance V less strategic improvement than adults and middle-level knowledge acquisition. Strategic progress was maintained by both groups when new problem content was introduced midway through the sessions. The results thus indicate significant abstraction of strategies and strategy change across content, as well as populations.A further indication of generality was the takings of new strategies at ab tabu the same time in the social and physical domains, steady though performance in the social domain overall lagged tush that in the physical domain. At the individual level, mixed usage of valid and invalid strategies was the norm. This finding in an adult population suggests that this vari office is a much(prenominal) than than general characteristic of human performance, quite a than integrity unique to states of developmental transition.An some other(a) broad implication of this variation is that undivided-occasion assessment may provide an at scoop incomplete, and often mis result, characterization of an individuals approach. Still some other implication is that at least part of vari aptitude in performance across content resides in the opened, rather than exclusively in the t subscribe. That superior strategies be in an individuals repertory argon non always applied highlights the item that more is involved in skilled performance than the ability to execute effective strategies.Metastrategic competency-the ability to reflect on and manage strategic knowledge-and metacognitive competence-the ability to reflect on the conten t of ones knowledge- are emphasized as critical components of cognitive development. These competencies determine the strategies that are rattling used, among those potentially available, and in that locationfore the effectiveness of an individuals performance. Finally, the mien of double strategies and fivefold forms of competence greatly complicates the portrayal of developmental change. Rather than a nidimensional transition from a to b, the change process must be conceptualized in terms of multiple components following individual (although not independent) paths. VI I. INTRODUCTION Knowledge acquisition is a process fundamental to survival that begins betimes and continues through off the life span. What do we know of the process? Research within the last decade has made it clear that from an early age knowledge is organized into theories that are expound and revised over time and that servicing as vehicles for understanding the world.In other words, knowledge acquisitio n to a large degree occurs through a process of guess formation and modification. Among queryers adopting a knowledge- or theoretic approach to cognitive development, the focus has been on describing the content of these evolving theories in a wide range of domains, and we now know a good deal about the progressively more elaborated knowledge that children of assorted ages are likely to have within numerous content domains (Gelman & Wellman, in press Wellman & Gelman, 1992).In contrast, relatively little attention has been given to the process of knowledge acquisition itself, that is, the mechanisms by means of which theories are formed and revised and knowledge is thereby acquired. It is this depicted objective lens that is the focus of the present work. Within the knowledge- tie-upd approach, the assumption that has been at least implicit, and is from time to time voiced explicitly (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991 Carey, 1985a, 1986), is that these mechanisms remain more or less constant across development.The present work rests on a contrasting claim that strategies of knowledge acquisition vary importantly across (as well as within) individuals and can be conceptualized in developmental terms. KNOWLEDGE AS ACQUISITION THEORY-EVIDENCE COORDINATION The general form of knowledge and knowledge acquisition canvas here is that of the relation between one category of take and another. Most commonly, such(prenominal) relations are construed causatively (Cheng & Nisbett, 1993), with an cause category of pointt construe as influencing an out contend IKUHNETAL. category (e. g. , ingestion of nutriment and a childs bodily growth). Underpinning this form of knowledge is a more basic one having to do with how stock-stillts or objects fit together into categories (e. g. , foods, nonfoods, and permanent vs. temporary bodily changes). Although the latter(prenominal) is not examined here, both forms of knowledge involve theories as organizing devices (Barrett , Abdi, Murphy, & Gallagher, 1993 Keil, 1991 Medin, 1989 Wisniewski & Medin, 1994).Childrens and adults theories about causal relations undergo revision as new evidence is encountered. Hence, knowledge acquisition strategies involve the evaluation of evidence and inductive causal certainty. Recent theories of inductive causal demonstration in adults (Cheng & Novick, 1990, 1992) are consistent with earlier accounts (Alloy & Tabachnik, 1984 Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986) in attri simply nowing with child(p) roles both to earlier expectation (or opening) and to evidence of covariation (of the germane(predicate) component parts) in fostering inferences of causality.It is difficult to explain not only saucer-eyed concept formation (Keil, 1991) nevertheless even basic characteriseing phenomena in animals without invoking a take a leak that involves expectation (Holyoak, Koh, & Nisbett, 1989). A conception of inductive inference as involving a coordination of possi bility and evidence (Kuhn, 1989) contrasts with earlier approaches to the development of inductive inference strategies-for example, the Piagetian research on formal trading operations-in which such strategies were regarded as largely domain independent and therefore equally applicable to any content irrespective of prior knowledge or expectation.In empirical studies of adults multivariable inductive causal inference, subjects typically are provided with a strict of multiple instances in which one or more potential causes does or does not occur and an publication is present or absent (Cheng & Novick, 1990, 1991 D haveing, Sternberg, & Ross, 1985 Schustack & Sternberg, 1981). The subject is asked to evaluate the evidence and draw inferences regarding the causal status of one or more of the factors.Although this approach can reveal much about how varying patterns of evidence affect inference, it does not lend much insight into the minimum take aims for an inference of causality, wh ich may be as little as a iodin coexistrence (of prior(prenominal) and conclusion), even in the clear presence of assetal covariates (Kuhn & Phelps, 1982). Moreover, in raw(a) settings, even when multiple instances are readily available, there is no reason to believe that individuals leave stress out and attend to all of them.For both these reasons, we were interested in studying situations in which subjects are desolate to select the evidence on which they base their inferences, a condition that links the present work to research on scientific cerebrate (Klahr, Fay, & Dunbar, 1993 Kuhn, Amsel, & OLoughlin, 1988 Kuhn, Schauble, & Garcia-Mila, 1992), as we discuss further later in this chapter. Yet the cognitive skills examined in this Monograph are, we believe, 2 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION epresentative of processes of knowledge acquisition and inductive inference more broadly speaking (Kuhn, 1993). We therefore situate the present work in this broader setting. Methodologically, this means that we examine knowledge acquisition across a broad range of domains involving both physical and social phenomena, rather than restricting the investigation to tralatitious scientific domains. THE MICROGENETIC METHOD To study knowledge acquisition strategies and their development, we use a microgenetic method.The virtues of the microgenetic method as a tool for examining change have been elaborated in our own earlier work (Kuhn & Phelps, 1982) and more lately by Siegler and Crowley (1991). The evolution of behaviors that one observes over time in microgenetic study can serve to formalize cross-sectional deviations in performance. Most authorised, however, the method offers the opportunity for detailed analysis of the process of change. Later in this chapter, we summarize findings from previous research utilizing a microgenetic method.An authoritative feature of the method is that changes over time are initiated by subjects themselves, in interaction with the problems materials, rather than by the investigator, who provides no instruction or feedback with respect to a subjects approaches to a problem. The rationale is that increased minginess of exercise of existing strategies may adopt to change that, moreover for occurring comparatively rapidly, otherwise resembles a naturally occurring change process.The researcher is thereby afforded close observation of the process. In addition, a third potential benefit of the method is its capacity to provide a overflowinger, more blameless picture of competence than can be attained using a single-occasion method. If a subjects performance improves subsequently a few sessions of engagement, it tells us that this level of performance was within the subjects capabilities and accordingly should be recognized as part of his or her competence, or zone of proximal development in Vygotskys (1978) terms.In several respects, the method used in the work reported in this Monograph is an elabo rated form of the microgenetic method, one that has not been used in other microgenetic research. First, we simultaneously track two kinds of change over time within a domain. wholeness is the subjects evolving knowledge within that domain ( specialisedally, knowledge of the causal and noncausative relations among variables that reflect the structure of the domain). The second base kind of change is in strategies of knowledge acquisition, which may excessively evolve as knowledge is existence acquired.In other uses of the microgenetic method, typically only one form of change has been discover, 3 KUHNETAL. for example, in strategies for solving addition problems (Siegler & Jenkins, 1989). A second respect in which the basic microgenetic method is elaborated is that we observe change within multiple domains in which the subject is engaged at the same time. Doing so allows us to compare both knowledge acquisition and evolving strategy usage across domains (as well as relating th e two to one another within domains).We wished to examine a broad range of domains, involving both physical and social content, to establish the generality of the knowledge acquisition processes being examined. The research physique thus stipulated that each subject undergo parallel engagement with one problem in the physical content domain and one problem in the social content domain. A number of considerations lead to the prediction of greater challenge (and hence inferior performance) in the social domain. Among these are the possibly more extensive sign knowledge (whether or not it is correct) in the social domain and possibly greater ffective investment in this knowledge (Kunda, 1990), either of which would get hold of the task of theory-evidence coordination more difficult. A third elaboration of the microgenetic method is reflected in a research design that incorporates a traditional pitch design within a microgenetic framework. The purpose, again, is to establish gener ality of the knowledge acquisition strategies that we examine. The traditional transfer design used to assess generality of a skill across content domains is problematic for a number of reasons that we need not review here.A further problem arises if (as we show here to be the fictional character) a subject at a given point in time does not possess just a single strategy but instead selects strategies from a repertory of multiple strategies. If so, single-occasion assessment within a single content domain may produce an inaccurate and mis take characterization (since the subject could have selected a different strategy on this feature occasion and skill do so on another occasion) in this case, accurate single-occasion assessment of generality acrossdomains is precluded.The multiple-task, multiple-occasion assessment busy here allows us to assess generality in a more dynamic way than is afforded by a traditional transfer design. Each subject worked on a problem in the physical do main at one weekly session and a problem in the social domain at a second weekly session, for each of the eldest 5 weeks of a 10-week period of observation. At the beginning of the sixth week, new problems within each of the domains were substituted, and the sessions continued for the remaining five weeks.The question we ask is whether the substitution of new content affects the strategies that the subject uses. To the extent that the same set of strategies that a subject uses in the final encounters with the initial problem carries over to the new content, some degree of domain generality (of both strategies and strategy change) is indicated. A final elaboration of the microgenetic method is to replicate the design 4 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION with multiple age groups, enabling us to compare the knowledge acquisition process across age levels.In addition to providing further evidence regarding the generality of knowledge acquisition processes (across populations in this c ase, rather than content), this comparison is important in addressing a more specific question. The pattern observed in our own as well as others microgenetic work has been one of mixed, or variable, strategy usage, as we describe in the next section. In other words, instead of a single, consistent approach, the subject shows variable usage of a variety of more and less competent approaches, even though the problem environment remains constant.An ambiguity arises, however, owing to the fact that the subjects observed in microgenetic work have been either assumed or assessed to be in a state of transition with respect to the competencies in question. It is possible, therefore, that the variable strategy usage that has been observed is a grumpy characteristic of a developmental transition state, as dynamic systems theories of development predict (Van der Maas & Molenaar, 1992). It thus becomes important to ask whether the same variability over repeated occasions would be observed amo ng populations at other than a characteristic age of transition.If it is, it suggests that this variability is a more general characteristic of human performance, rather than one unique to states of developmental transition. To address this fundamental question, we chose preadolescents and community college adults as the two populations on which to base such a comparison. Previous work (Klahr et al. , 1993 Kuhn et al. , 1988) establishes the preadolescent age level as one at which the strategies in question are just beginning to emerge.However, some young adult populations show initial levels of performance little more advanced than those characteristic of preadolescents (Kuhn et al. , 1988), enabling us to compare subjects of these two ages in a microgenetic design. In addition to establishing whether strategy change occurs at periods other than the typical period of developmental transition, the design allows cross-age comparison of the process of knowledge acquisition as well as of the interaction of knowledge acquisition and strategy change. Another set of questions centers on the effects of the exercise provided by the microgenetic method.Despite similar starting line points, does one age group show more rapid evolution of strategies than another group, both having been provided equal exercise? Does such change differ only in degree or also in form? These questions are central to establishing the generality of knowledge acquisition strategies across populations. A final purpose of this Monographis to present a method of analysis that combines qualitative analysis of individuals with quantitative analysis of groups of individuals. Observers of the issues progress, such as White (1994a, 1994b), have lamented the limited range of methods to which devel5KUHNETAL. opmental researchers have restricted themselves. Especially in undertaking to study the difficult topic of processes of change, innovative methods are called for. In particular, the study of indiv idual subjects is receiving increasing attention as an important and neglected method. As a research method, however, single-subject analysis well-nigh often is do by skeptically, and even dismissed, on the assumption that it is severely limited by its inability to provide evidence of the generality of the phenomena observed.Here, we secure to illustrate how individual and group, as well as qualitative and quantitative, modes of analysis can be used in conjunction to provide an enriched understanding of developmental phenomena. In the next section, we discuss previous research in more detail, in order to situate the present research effort in the context of various lines of work to which it connects. The reader wishing to focus exclusively on the present work can proceed directly to the final section of this chapter, which introduces the inference forms that trope prominently in later chapters.THE deliver STUDY THE IN CONTEXT PASTRESEARCH OF FromLearning ConceptualChange to It was only a few decades ago that knowledge acquisitionand learning were treated as synonymous terms, both referring to a process of strengthening of associative bonds between stimuli and responses. In developmental psychology, Kendler and Kendler (1975) deserve the major credit for moving the field beyond a conceptualization of the developing child as a cluster of inter link up responses (Bijou & Baer, 1961, p. 4) and delving into the black box that encountered mental phenomena. Although the Kendlers imitateing of such phenomena in terms of covert stimuli and responses was highly restrictive, they demonstrated convincingly that the learning process cannot be studied without considering the developmental status of the organism. That insight remains a central one today. What individuals already know and how that knowledge is organized constrains what and how new knowledge will be acquired.The burgeoning area of research that has come to be cognise as the study of conceptual change d ocuments the development of knowledge in numerous domains, with physics (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1987, 1992) and biology (Carey, 1985b) the domains that have been the object of greatest study. Extensive literature reviews are provided by Gelman and Wellman (in press) and Wellman and Gelman (1992). The main tenet cardinal and connecting these individual lines of 6 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION research is that cognitive development can be capablely accounted for in terms of developing knowledge within content domains.As a consequence, findings are largely specific to the domain studied. The major insight that extends across domains is the theory-like organization of knowledge. Even the properties that define simple concepts cluster and in return support one another. Conceptions of such homeostatic causal clusters, and the mechanisms underlying them, are the glue that collapses features cohere (Keil, 1991). At a less elementary level, evidence exists suggesting that young child rens theories have properties such as consistency, coherence, comprehensiveness, and explanatory military force (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991 Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992).As noted earlier, relatively little attention has been given to the mechanisms that effect theory change. When and how does new evidence lead to modification of existing theories? Despite speculative claims that these mechanisms are developmentally invariant (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991 Carey, 1985a, 1986), little empirical work has been devoted to investigating them. Some research has been done to support claims that theory change will be more difficult to accomplish if it crosses ontological categories (Chi, 1992), involves radical (vs. eak) restructuring (Carey, 1990), or violates entrenched dogmas (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992). But how should the mechanisms of change be conceptualized? Keil (1988, 1989, 1991) has addressed this question with respect to the formation of elementary concepts, contrasting accounts maintaining (a) that such concepts arise out of networks of associations observed in the environment, (b) that the process is theory guided, or (c) that at some point a developmental veer occurs from the first to the second process.Keil (1991) rejects the possibilities of an exclusive associative network process and a developmental shift from such a process to a theory-guided one, asking how coherent theories could arise out of networks of associations. Instead, he nominates, all concepts represent a blend of an associative matrix overlaid with causal beliefs. Humans have evolved adaptations for building knowledge representations about sets of regularities in the world, but these processes are never completely info driven or completely theory driven.In the present work, we address a similar question regarding the mechanisms of conceptual change but in this case with respect to the secondorder concepts of relations (particularly causal relations) between elementary conceptual cate gories. We adopt a perspective resembling Keils that the mechanism entails the coordination of new evidence with an existing network of theories. What are the strategies that an individual uses to achieve this coordination, and do they change with age and practice? Addressing this question leads to the topics of inductive causal inference and scientific argument.First, however, we examine issues involved in the study of change. 7 KUHNETAL. Learning,Transfer,and the Study of Change The process of knowledge acquisition is likely to figure prominently in any comprehensive theory of human cognitive functioning. One prominent example is Sternbergs (1984, 1985) triarchic theory, in which knowledge acquisition mechanisms are one of several core components of the intellect. But how is knowledge acquisition studied through empirical observation? Psychologists studying very simple, short-term learning processes may be able to observe these processes directly in the laboratory.The study of mo re comprehensive kinds of cognitive change, however, especially those involving change in knowledge acquisition strategies themselves, poses sobering methodological challenges. Developmental psychologists have been in the particularly difficult position of seeking to understand developmental change without observing it directly. As has now been widely noted, the cross-sectional and even longitudinal designs that are the staples of developmental psychology may provide suggestive data regarding change, but they do not afford direct observation of the process Wohlwill, 1973). The microgenetic method has been advocated as a way out of this impasse. As described by Kuhn and Phelps (1982), the goal of the method is to accelerate the change process by providing a subject with frequent opportunities over a period of weeks or months to engage the particular cognitive strategies that are the object of investigation. This increased density of exercise of existing strategies may lead to change , allowing the researcher close observation of the process.In the initial work by Kuhn and Phelps (1982), we chose strategies of wide applicability as a innovation for exploring the utility of the methodstrategies of inductive causal inference that are fundamental to knowledge acquisition and can be identified in both scientific and loose reasoning (Kuhn, 1991, 1993). In weekly sessions, preadolescent subjects were asked to identify causal and noncausal effects as they freely investigated a domain in which multiple variables played potential causal roles in influencing an outcome.Strategies of investigation and inference did improve in a majority of subjects over the period of observation. In a comparison condition (Kuhn & Ho, 1980), subjects each week were presented with a set of preexistingoutcome instances identical to that which the subjects yoked control in the free investigation condition had selected for psychometric test these subjects also showed some, but less, change. Subsequent research (Kuhn et al. , 1992 Schauble, 1990, in press), including the present study, has followed this same paradigm of microgenetic testing of inductive inference strategies in multivariable contexts.Meanwhile, other developmental researchers, notably Siegler and his colleagues (Siegler & Jenkins, 1989), began to use the microgenetic method, in Sieglers case in the very different domain of elementary addition strategies. 8 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION Among other researchers who have used a microgenetic method in various domains are Bidell and Fischer (1994), Granott (1993), Karmiloff-Smith (1984), Lawler (1985), and Metz (1985, 1993). In addition, a line of Genevan work beginning with a study by Karmiloff-Smith and Inhelder (1974) falls under the heading of microgenetic research.In certain respects, modern microgenetic research connects to work in the genetic tradition of Werner (1948), although the latter was limited to observation within a single session. Eno ugh microgenetic work has accrued by now to understand comparison and generalization possible (Siegler & Crowley, 1991). Studies conducted within very different domains show convergence in several important respects. Most important, they provide a clear indication of what the change process is not-simple re regulatement of a less adequate approach with a more adequate one.Instead, subjects commonly exhibit intraindividual variability in the strategies that they apply to identical problems, with less adequate strategies coexisting in a subjects repertory together with more adequate ones. The initial appearance of a new strategy, then, does not mark its consistent application. Instead, less adequate strategies continue to compete with it, and, indeed, the more formidable challenge appears to be abandoning the old, rather than acquiring the new-a reversal in the way that development is traditionally conceived.Change does occur, but it appears as a gradual shift in the distribution of use of a set of strategies of varying adequacy. The most recent microgenetic work (Granott, 1993 Metz, 1993) offers a number of additional insights regarding the nature of the change process. We return to them in the final chapter in discussing insights from the present work. As described earlier in this chapter, a main purpose of the present work is to extend the microgenetic method in ways that address several critical questions.One is whether the variability and change observed in microgenetic studies is particular to subjects in a period of developmental transition or is a more general phenomenon. A second is the extent to which such change is general as opposed to domain specific. Domain specificity versus domain generality of cognitive strategies is a topic at the nerve centre of much current debate in the field of cognitive development (KarmiloffSmith, 1994). In a previous study (Kuhn et al. , 1992), we addressed this question by having subjects work simultaneously in two d omains, with separate sessions each week devoted to each.This study provided some evidence of generality in that improvements in strategy tended to co-occur in rough synchrony across the two domains. These findings, however, do not provide an reception to the more traditional question of whether the newly developed competencies would transfer to new content to which the subject had not been previously exposed. This question is addressed in the present work. Studies of transfer have served as the traditional means for assessing generality Does a newly acquired competency transfer to a new context? 9 KUHN ET AL.Whether the subjects are preschool children or college adults, in a majority of cases the answer has been no. Such findings have led to critical scrutiny of the transfer construct (Detterman & Sternberg, 1993) as well as increasingly domain-specific conceptions of cognitive development (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992). Why should transfer to new contexts be expected? Two prevailing co nceptualizations of transfer offer somewhat different answers. In the more common conceptualization, transfer is seen as mediated by a symbolic representation of the problem domain (Brown, 1989, 1990 Gentner, 1983, 1989 Holyoak, 1984 Singley & Anderson, 1989).To the extent that there is overlap between the representations of two problem domains (i. e. , the extent to which the elements of one play onto the elements of the other), transfer between the two should occur. In a study by Brown and Kane (1988), for example, subjects had to recognize a connection between force a boat ashore with a fishing rod and pulling someone out of a hole with a spade. A somewhat different conception of transfer (Greeno, Smith, & Moore, 1993) emphasizes the activity that the problem solver engages in.To the extent the activity is common to two settings, transfer will occur. In the words of Greeno et al. (1993, p. 146), The structure that enables transfer is in the interactive activity of the person in the situation. When transfer occurs it is because of general properties and relations of the persons interaction with features of a situation. It is this latter conception of transfer that fits our paradigm better than the first one (which is sometimes referred to as analogical transfer).The strategies that subjects develop are very broadly applicable across a wide range of content, but subjects learn to apply these strategies only within the context of particular, relatively narrow down content. Will these strategies generalize to new and diverse kinds of content? This classic transfer question is complicated by the findings from microgenetic research. As noted earlier, microgenetic data indicate that, at a given point in time, a subject does not possess just a single strategy but instead selects trategies from a repertory that includes multiple strategies of varying adequacy. Given this situation, assessment on a single occasion within a single content domain may produce an in accurate characterization of the subjectscompetence (since the subject big businessman have selected a different strategy). As a consequence, studies that assess competence across domains are even more error prone. To overcome these limitations, in the present work we situate the transfer design in a microgenetic context, substituting new content midway through the observation period.Through this technique we hope to answer a critical question about the generality of the change induced in microgenetic studies as well as to assess transfer in a more dynamic way than it has been approached in the past. 10 STRATEGIES OFKNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION Meta noesis,FormalOperations,and ScientificReasoning Piaget (1950 Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, 1969) offered an explicit account of a developmental progression in strategies of knowledge acquisition. Young children construct rudimentary concepts of the type examined by Keil (1989, 1991) that we referred to earlier.With the advent of concrete operations at the age of 6 or 7, concepts acquire the properties of systematic hierarchical classes. A further major development occurs with the appearance of formal operations at adolescence, when second-order relations between categories begin to be examined-the skill on which the present Monographfocuses. Piagets theoretical model of formal operations has been criticized (for a review, see Keating, 1980), and in his later work (Piaget & Garcia, 1991) there is evidence that even he came to regard the model as insufficiently concerned with the meaning of the propositions that subjects contemplated.Empirical research relating to formal operations has been largely focused on subjectsability to conduct scientific investigation of the relations between variables in a multivariable context, and here, in contrast, Inhelder and Piagets (1958) pioneering work has been substantially replicated (Keating, 1980 Moshman, in press). Both the methods and the conclusions of scientific investigation are like ly to be faulty among subjects younger than midadolescence moreover, as research subsequent to Inhelder and Piagets has shown, even older adolescents and many adults often perform poorly as scientists (Dunbar & Klahr, 1989 Klahr et al. 1993 Kuhn et al. , 1988 Schauble & Glaser, 1990). Although they did not use the term, Inhelder and Piaget (1958) in effect attributed poor performance in scientific reasoning tasks to metacognitive weakness, defined as the inability to contemplate ones own thought as an object of cognition or, in their (1958) terms, to engage in second-order operations on operations. To the extent that such an ability is truly lacking, the ramifications no doubt extend well beyond the realm of scientific reasoning (Kuhn, 1992a, 1993).Subsequent to Inhelder and Piagets (1958) work, metacognition has become a topic of widespread interest (Flavell, 1979, 1993 Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1995 Flavell & Wellman, 1977 ForrestPressley, MacKinnon, & Waller, 1985 Metcalfe & Shi mamura, 1994 Moshman, 1979, 1990, 1995 Schneider, 1985), but the term has been variably and often loosely defined, with the majority of investigators employing it in its initial and more restricted sense of knowledge and management of ones cognitive strategies, particularly memory strategies.In the present work, we make a character between metacognitive knowledge and metastrategic knowledge, a distinction that parallels in many respects the lower-order distinction between declarative and procedural 11 KUHNETAL. knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge involves awareness of and reflection on the content of ones thought, ranging from simple awareness of the content of ones present or immediately prior thought (Flavell et al. , 1995) to reflection on a set of propositions that one believes to be true or contracts to take under consideration (Moshman, 1990).Metastrategic knowledge involves awareness and management of the strategies that are applied in the course of thinking and problem sol ving (Sternberg, 1984). Both metacognitive and metastrategic knowledge entail treating ones own cognition as itself an object of cognition-a form of cognitive distancing(Sigel, 1993). Both metacognitive and metastrategic knowledge, we will claim, figure importantly in the development of the cognitive skills examined in this Monograph.If knowledge acquisition is a process of theory revision, as we have claimed, to accomplish the process in a skilled way the individual need to be aware of and reflect on a theory (metacognitive competence), coordinating it with new evidence by means of strategies that are inferentially sound and applied in a consistent manner (metastrategic competence). In the fare absence of such competence, evidence and theory are not represented as distinct entities.In this case, new evidence may lead to modification of a theory (as it does even among very young children), but the process takes place outside the individuals conscious control (Kuhn, 1989). There is a problem, however, with attributing proficiency in knowledge acquisition or scientific reasoning to the development of metacognitive or metastrategic competencies emerging at adolescence. Competent scientific reasoning entails a number of component skills, and data exist suggesting that at least rudimentary forms of all these skills are in place well before adolescence.In addition to the metacognitive and metastrategic abilitiesjust discussed, included among these skills are the ability to comfort alternative possibilities, to detect and interpret covariation, and to isolate and control variables. One study (Richardson, 1992) in particular stands out for its sacrosanct claim of early competence. Even young children, the author maintains, readily interpret both one-dimensional and interactive effects of three or more variables-a claim that stands in striking contradiction to data to be presented in this Monographdemonstrating the difficulty that even adults have with such coordi nations.The data from Richardsons study, however, cannot be clearly interpreted for a number of methodological reasons, foremost among them being the failure to examine individual patterns of performance and do them from group data. The remaining studies of early competence make more modest claims that certain abilities traditionally associated with scientific reasoning are present in rudimentary forms in young children. Sodian, Zaitchik, and Carey (1991), for example, undertook a study to show that young children 12 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION an distinguish between an instruction and evidence that bears on the assertion if the context is simple bountiful. They posed first- and second-grade in their house was a large or small one, which they did by placing food in a box overnight. Two boxes were available, one with a large opening (able to settle a large or a small mouse) and one with a small opening (big enough for only the small mouse to pass through). The subject was asked which of the two boxes the children should put food in. Sodian et al. (1991) report that 11 of 20 first graders and 12 of 14 second graders preferred the determinate solution (i. . , chose the small-opening box), indicating both sizeable competence and considerable development in this age range. Sodian et al. (1991) note that their subjects performance reflects a differentiation of surmisal and evidence since the hypothesis (large or small mouse) is distinguished from the evidence that will test it (the food disappears or does not). Note, however, that the potential confusion in this case is not between theories and evidence (mice and food) but rather lies in the selection of the form of evidence appropriate to test a theory.In a subsequent set of more detailed studies, Ruffman, Perner, Olson, and Doherty (1993) report similar evidence in comparably simple contexts even among some 5-year-olds (as well as 6- and 7-year-olds). In fact, everyday observation confirms that impl icit forms of theory-evidence coordination occur at even earlier ages-illustrated, for example, by a 2-year-old who calls her parents into her bedroom with the claim that it is a ghost in her closet that is the cause of a patrician whooshing noise that is keeping her awake.This child understands as well as her parents that opening the closet door will provide the evidence capable of disconfirming this causal hypothesis, even though she lacks any metacognitive awareness of her own belief states as hypotheses to be coordinated with evidence. The valuable function served by Ruffman et al. s (1993) study is to make clear the connection that exists between early theory-of-mind competencies (Feldman, 1992 Perner, 1991 Wellman, 1990) and competencies that figure importantly in scientific reasoning.Both have strong metacognitive aspects. The 4-year-old child who comes to recognize that an assertion is not necessarily correct-that the candy can be believed to be in the cupboard and in truth be elsewhere (Perner, 1991)-has achieved an essential milestone in the development of scientific reasoning ability. This child has made at least a primitive differentiation between what a mind theorizes to be true and information from the external world that bears on this theory. False beliefs, by definition, are subject to disconfirmation by evidence. Although it has ometimes been treated this way in the literature, metacognition, like cognition, is not a zero-one, present-absent phenomenon that emerges in full bloom at a particular point in development. The position subjectsa problemin which some childrenwanted to find out if a mouse 13 KUHNETAL. taken in this Monographis that the development of metacognitive competence, like that of metastrategic competence, takes place very step by step over many years and involves a process of increasing explicitation(KarmiloffSmith, 1992) of skills present in implicit form.Metacognitive competence develops from its most rudimentary forms (exa mined by Flavell and Gopnik and their colleagues in studies to be described shortly) to the more highly developed, explicit forms demanded by the activities in which subjects in the present research engage. Ruffman et al. (1993) illustrate the evolution of early emerging metacognitive capability relevant to scientific reasoning by asking subjects to reason about propositions as belief states (a requirement not present in Sodian et al. s, 1991, study).They ensure that subjects do so by explicitly characterizing these belief states as ill-advised. umteen (although not all) of the 5-7-year-olds in their research judged that a story character who observes a set of dolls who usually choose red over green food will conclude that the dolls like red food, even though the subjects themselves have been told that this is not the true state of affairs (the dolls really like green food, the subject is told). In this respect, the child comprehends the relation between a pattern of evidence and a theory (the contrary-to-fact hypothesis held by the story character).Put in different terms, the child can draw appropriate inferences from contrary-to-fact propositions (an ability that Piaget tied to the emergence of formal operations). In a follow-up experiment, Ruffman et al. showed that this comprehension extends to predictive judgments (e. g. , that the dolls will choose red food again). In theory-of-mind terms, these children are drawing appropriate inferences regarding others belief states (or theories, as long as we agree to use this term in its broad sense), even when they have been told that these theories are not correct. The material is deliberately knowing so that the childs own theoretical preferences are likely to be neutral. ) The portrayal of early proficiency in metacognitive competencies important to scientific reasoning that Ruffman et al. (1993) offer needs to be qualified, however, by other research demonstrating that the period between 4 and 8 years of age is one of significant development of the basic metacognitive competencies that serve as underpinnings of more complex forms of reasoning about propositions. A series of studies by Flavell et al. 1995) showed 3-5-year-old children to have considerable difficulty accurately reporting either their own immediately preceding mental activity or that of another individual, in contexts in which that mental activity had been particularly clear and salient. In contrast, 7-8-year-olds were largely (although not entirely) successful in such tasks. Distinctions between (second-order) representations (and consequent verbal reports) of thinking about an object and (first-order) representations of the object itself appeared fragile in the younger children.The older ones, like children of a 14 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION similar age in Ruffman et al. s (1993) research, were better able to make inferences that depended on representations of mental states. In related work, Gopnik and her coll eagues (Gopnik & Graf, 1988 Gopnik & Slaughter, 1991) showed that preschoolers have a limited awareness of the source of their beliefs-a metacognitive ability that figures prominently in the work presented in this Monograph.Gopnik and Graf (1988) found that, even in very simple situations, 3- and 4-year-olds could not identify where knowledge they had just acquired had come from-for example, whether they had learned the contents of a drawer from seeing them or being told about them. Performance was significantly improved, however, among 5-year-olds. Some of Gopnik and Grafs 3- and 4-year-olds might even have been successful in Sodian et al. s (1991) task of differentiating and coordinating a theory (about a mouses size) and evidence (of food eaten or not) bearing on it, but they showed remarkablylittle differentiation of theory and evidence at he metacognitive level of distinguishing the representation of what they knew (the contents of the drawer) from a representation of the evide nce that had provided this knowledge. one time the knowledge was acquired, the two sparely became fused into a single representation that encompassed only the knowledge itself. sustenance this interpretation are other findings showing that preschool children report that they have always known knowledge that was just acquired in the experimental situation (Gopnik & Astington, 1988 Taylor, Esbensen, & Bennett, 1994).Evidence regarding early strategic (as opposed to metastrategic or metacognitive) competence related to scientific reasoning is largely positive. Ruffman et al. s (1993) study substantiates that one of several simple strategic competencies entailed in scientific reasoning-inferring causality from covariation evidence-poses no great difficulty among young children, as earlier research had shown (Mendelson & Shultz, 1976 Shultz & Mendelson, 1975). Indeed, this ability is evident at the sensorimotor level in human infants (Piaget, 1952) as well as in bloodless organisms.B y the end of the first year of life, infants have begun to make causal inferences based on the juxtaposition of an antecedent and an outcome. As data in the present illustrate, it is the fact that this inference strategy is overlearned Monograph that causes problems. Precursors to the critical control-of-variables strategy most closely associated with scientific reasoning are also evident. Most elementary among these are judgments of comparison, first in terms of an individual (Can I run faster than my brother? , later in terms of groups of individuals (Can the girls in the class run faster than the boys? ). Once the concept of a fair comparison emerges (What if the boys wore ladder garment and the girls didnt? ), it remains only to formalize the comparison into the framework of a controlled test of relations between variables (gender and running speed). 15 KUHNETAL. Case (1974) has shown that, although they do not do so spontaneously, children as young as age 8 can readily be tau ght to carry out controlled comparisons.Early developing forms of metastrategic competence are also evident. A skill important to scientific reasoning is recognition of the indeterminacy associated with entertaining alternative possibilities. This skill is explored in a line of research beginning with studies by Pieraut-Le Bonniec (1980). During the early childhood years, children develop the ability to discriminate between situations that have determinate solutions and those that do not or, in other words, to know whether they have an answer-a competency having clear metastrategic aspects. For a review of research, see Acredolo & OConnor, 1991, or Byrnes & Beilin, 1991. ) The study by Sodian et al. (1991) can also be interpreted in these terms. In the face of evidence of all this early competence, a pose problem is to explain the persistent poor performance of children, adolescents, and many adults in full-fledged scientific reasoning tasks, that is, ones in which they are asked t o examine a database and draw conclusions (Dunbar & Klahr, 1989 Klahr et al. , 1993 Kuhn et al. 1988 Schauble & Glaser, 1990). Addressing this critical question is an important objective of the present Monograph. With repeated exercise, we find, knowledge acquisition strategies improve among most subjects, but these strategies remain error prone and brusk among many adults as well as children. Microgenetic data will, we hope, provide insight into the obstacles that impede success in these fundamental forms of reasoning and knowledge acquisition. We therefore return to this question after the data have been presented.Inductive causal Inferencein Multivariable Contexts It is a curiosity that research on scientific reasoning (originating and remaining largely in the developmental literature) has proceeded independently of and remains largely unintegrated with research on multivariable inductive causal inference (centered in the adult cognition literature). The central difference betwe en the two is a simple one. Whereas studies of scientific reasoning typically involve selecting instances to create a database, studies of inductive causal inference involve presenting instances from a database for examination.In both, however, the subject must interpret the evidence and draw conclusions, these conclusions being the end product of the process in both cases. Kuhn and Brannock (1977) argued that the natural experiment situation involved in studies of inductive inference elicits forms of reasoning paralleling those identified in earlier studies of isolation of variables within the framework of formal operations and scientific reasoning. 16 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITIONAlthough there exists a large literature on the development of causal inference (for a review, see Bullock, 1985 Bullock, Gelman, & Baillargeon, 1982 Sedlak & Kurtz, 1981), with the excommunication of our own developmental studies (Kuhn & Brannock, 1977 Kuhn & Phelps, 1982 Kuhn et al. , 1988) theor etical and empirical work on multivariable causal inference has largely been fixed in the adult cognition literature. Like much of the literature on scientific reasoning development, the developmental literature on causal inference highlights the childs early competence.As noted earlier, from an early age children draw on covariation information, as well as other cues, as a basis for inferences of causality (Mendelson & Shultz, 1976 Shultz & Mendelson, 1975). Equally important, from an early age they have theories of causal mechanism that influence their causal judgments (Shultz, 1982), a finding consonant with the more recent conceptual change literature. Within the adult literature, theoretical analysis has focused largely on covariation as the most important source of information about causality.Mills (1843/1973) joint method of agreement and difference identifies covariation as the appropriate basis for inferences of causality, and Kelleys (1967) extensively researched attribut ion model similarly rests on covariation between antecedent and outcome. More recent investigators have followed in this tradition but have sought to identify more precisely the inductive strategies that mediate between a covariational database and an inference of causality.In empirical studies, typically a set of multivariable instances is presented in written form and the subject asked to judge what inferences can be drawn (Briggs, 1991 Cheng & Novick, 1990 Downing et al. , 1985 Schustack & Sternberg, 1981). On the basis of such data, Schustack and Sternberg (1981) developed a linear regression model to assign weights to five types of covariation information. The first four are frequencies of the joint presence of antecedent and outcome, the joint absence of antecedent and outcome, the presence of antecedent and the absence of outcome, and the bsence of antecedent and the presence of outcome. A fifth factor is the strength of competing causes. Although adult subjects show consiste ncy, leading to positive regression weights for the first two frequencies and negative weights for the second two, Cheng and Novick (1992) identify several theoretical anomalies in the linear regression model, for example, the role of base-level frequencies of antecedent and outcome in predicting the likelihood of a causal inference, factors that intuitively should not affect the causal status of the antecedent.An even more critical problem, however, for such models of induction strictly from an empirical database is the sheer computational weight of the task. The four frequencies in the Schustack and Sternberg model pertain to a single potential cause and outcome. Once the causal field is opened to a host of causal candidates (as it is in natural settings), the computational 17 KUHNETAL. burden quickly becomes enormous. Some means of narrowing the causal field to a set of manageable factors is needed.Different approaches have been taken to accomplishing this objective, but they ha ve in common limit of the set of potential causes to the set of events considered relevant by the attributor (Cheng & Novick, 1990, p. 562). In other words, theoretical expectation on the part of the subject, arising from a preexisting knowledge base, is invoked as a factor in the attribution of causality. Cheng and Novick (1990, 1992) propose that, within this focal set, inferences of causality are based on estimated differences in the probabilities of the effect in the presence versus the absence of the potential cause.Hilton and Slugoski (1986) specify abnormal conditions-those absent in a comparison condition-as the ones likely to be attributed as causes. Both models invoke the distinction emphasized by Mackie (1974) and others (Einhorn & Hogarth, 1986) between causes and enabling conditions. In Cheng and Novicks (1992) model, factors docile substantial differences across instances will be attributed as causes, whereas factors that are constant across instances will be either regarded as enabling conditions, if they are perceived as relevant, or dismissed as causally irrelevant (and hence excluded from the focal set).Note that the latter distinction rests entirely on the subjects theoretical belief. Covariation within a focal set of instances may well provide the basis for a judgment of causality, but, when this covariation is absent, theoretical belief offers the only basis for judging whether constant factors are causally relevant (as enabling conditions) or noncausal. Studies in the adult causal inference literature have tended to focus only on inferences of causality, treating inferences of noncausality almost as noninferences.They have not addressed the converse of the covariation principle-evidence of noncovariation over a set of instances as a basis for an inference of noncausality-or in general examined how empirical evidence might play a role in inferences of noncausality. As discussed in the next section, we see noncausal inference as occupying a prominent place in inductive inference, scientific reasoning, and knowledge acquisition, and these inferences are a central object of attention in the present work.We also pay a good deal of attention to another problem that Cheng and Novick (1992) note is not addressed by their model-inferences of causality based on spurious covariation of a noncausal factor with an outcome. The fact that we examine inductive inference over a period of time as a database of instances accumulates enables us to observe how a subject may gradually overcome the temptation of this invalid inference strategy as well as more generally how the subject coordinates accumulating new evidence with theoretical expectation.Most studies of causal inference have confined subjects to the presentation of a single set of instances 18 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION on a single occasion (with data analysis typically confined to the group level). In contrast, we ask subjects to seek out the evidence that they b elieve adequate to support their causal and noncausal inferences, and we follow them individually in their efforts to interpret this evidence and integrate it with existing knowledge.We turn now to an examination of the inference strategies that individuals might employ as they engage in this task. AND NONCAUSAL CAUSAL STRATEGIES INDUCTIVE OF inference Causal Inference(Inclusion) On what evidence might someone base the inference that antecedent a has a causal influence on outcome o? In the framework adopted here, we assume a multivariable context, and we assume that the individual is able to select instances to attend to. The question facing the individual is whether a particular factor a makes a difference to the outcome.For simplicity of exposition, we consider the case in which the identified factors-a, b, c, d, and e-are divided (two-level) variables. (Certain differences arise if the two levels of these variables are treated as presence and absence, but, again for simplicity o f exposition, they need not be taken into consideration here, and the two levels of each variable will be designated by the subscripts 1 and 2. ) A further assumption that we make is that selection of instances is at least partially theory motivated.In other words, the individuals prior beliefs about the causal and noncausal status of the identified factors influence the selection of instances to attend to. This selectivity takes a variety of forms that need not be identified in detail at this point some examples are the tendencies to select instances believed to produce the most positive level of an outcome (a success rather than an description orientation) and to fail to investigate factors that are believed noncausal.A minimal (but, as we shall document, frequent) basis for the inference that an antecedent a and an outcome o are causally related-an inference to which we refer henceforth as the inclusionof a-is their co-occurrence within a multivariable context al blcdl el ol. ( 1) We refer to such an inference as a co-occurrence false inclusion inference (because a and o merely co-occur on one occasion). Such inferences are based on only a single instance and are of course invalid since the cooccurrence does not establish that a played a causal role in producing o. 19KUHNETAL. In the case in which an individual selects at least two instances for examination, an informative second instance would be (2a) a2b c1d1el 02. Such an instance, with the outcome shown, allows the valid inclusion inference that a is causally implicated in o. This inference, based on two instances, is the product of a controlled comparison. In most natural settings, however, people do not have the lavishness of selecting for observation exactly those instances that would be most informative with respect to the inferences they al